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ANDREWS' SERIES OF LATIN SCHOOL ROOKS. 

PUBLISHED BY CROCKER & BREWSTER, 

47 "WASHINGTON STREET, B08TON. 



The Latin School Books prepared by Prof. E. A. Andrews, exclusive of his 
Latin-English Lexicon, founded on the Latin-German Lexicon of Dr. Freund, 
constitute two distinct series, adapted to different and distinct purposes. The 
basis of the First Series is Andrews' First Latin Book ; of the Second, An- 
drews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar. 

FIRST SERIES. 

This Series is designed expressly for those who commence the study of 
Latin at a very early age, and for such as intend to pursue it to a limited ex- 
tent only, or merely as subsidiary to the acquisition of a good English educa 
tion. It consists of the following works, viz. : — 

1. Andrews' First Latin Book ; or Progressive Les- 
sons in Reading and "Writing Latin. This small volume contains most of the 
leading principles and grammatical forms of the Latin language, and, by the 
logical precision of its rules and definitions, is admirably fitted to serve as an 
introduction to the study of general grammar. The work is divided into les- 
sons of convenient length, which are so arranged that the student will, in all 
cases, be prepared to enter upon the study of each successive lesson, by pos- 
sessing a thorough knowledge of those which preceded it. The lessons gen- 
erally consist of three parts : — 1st. The statement of important principles in 
the form of rules or definitions, or the exhibition of orthographical or etymo- 
logical forms ; 2d. Exercises, designed to illustrate such principles or forms ; 
and 3d. Questions, intended to assist the student in preparing his lesson. In 
addition to the grammatical lessons contained in this volume, a few pages of 
Reading Lessons are annexed, and tbese are followed by a Dictionary com- 
prising all the Latin words contained in the work. This book is adapted to 
the use of all schools above the grade of primary schools, including also 

Academies and Female Seminaries. It is prepared in such a manner that it 
can be used with little difficulty by any intelligent parent or teacher, with no 
previous knowledge of the language. 

2. The Latin Reader, with a Dictionary and Notes, 

containing explanations of difficult idioms, and numerous references to the 
Lessons contained in the First Latin Book. 

3. The Viri Roma?, with a Dictionary and Notes, re- 
ferring, like those of the Reader, to the First Latin Book. This series of 

three small volumes, if faithfully studied according to the directions contained 
in them, will not only render the student a very tolerable proficient in the 
principles of the Latin language and in the knowledge of its roots, from 
■which so many words of the English language are derived, but will constitute 
the best preparation for a thorough study of English grammar. 

SECOND SERIES. 

This Series is designed more especially for those who are intending to be- 
come thoroughly acquainted with the Latin language, and with the principal 
classical authors of that language. It consists of the following works: — 

1. Latin Lessons. This small volume is designed for 

the younger classes of Latin students, who intend ultimately to take up the 
larger Grammar, but to whom that work would, at first, appear too formida- 
ble. It contains the prominent principles of Latin grammar, expressed in 
the same language as in the larger Grammar, and likewise Reading and 
Writing Lessons, with a Dictionary of the Latin words and phrases occurring 
in the Lessons. 



New Series of Latin School Books. 

2. Latin Grammar. A Grammar of the Latin Lan- 
guage, for the use of Schools and Colleges. By Professors E. A. Andrews 
and S. Stoddard. This work, which for many years has been the text-book 
in the department of Latin Grammar in a large portion of American schools 
and colleges, and which claims the merit of having first introduced into the 
schools of this country the subject of grammatical analysis, which now occu- 
pies a conspicuous place in so many grammars of the English language, has 
been recently revised and carefully corrected in every part. 

3. Questions on the Grammar. This little volume 

is intended to aid the student in preparing his lessons, and the teacher in 
conducting his recitations. 

4. A Synopsis of Latin Grammar, comprising the 

Latin Paradigms, and the Principal Rules of Latin Etymology and Syntax. 
The few pages composing this work contain those portions of the Grammar 
to which the student has occasion to refer most frequently in the preparation 
of his daily lessons. 

5. Latin Reader. The Reader, by means of two sepa- 
rate and distinct sets of notes, is equally adapted for use in connection eitber 
with the First Latin Book or the Latin Grammar. 

6. Viri Romas. This volume, like the Reader, is fur- 
nished with notes and references, both to the First Latin Book and to the 
Latin Grammar. The principal difference in the two sets of notes found in 
each of these volumes consists in the somewhat greater fulness of those 
which belong to the smaller series. 

7. Latin Exercises. This work contains exercises in 

every department of the Latin Grammar, and is so arranged that it may be 
studied in connection with the Grammar through every stage of the prepara- 
tory course. It is designed to prepare the way for original composition in the 
Latin language, both in prose and verse. 

8. A Key to Latin Exercises. This Key, in which 

all the exercises in the preceding volume are fully corrected, is intended foi 
the use of teachers only. 

9. Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, with a 

Dictionary and Notes. The text of this edition of Cajsar has been formed by 
reference to the best German editions. The Notes are principally grammati- 
cal. The Dictionary, which, like all the others in the series, was prepared 
with great labor, contains the usual significations of the words, together with 
an explanation of all such phrases as might otherwise perplex the student. 

10. Sallust. Sallust's Jugurthine War and Conspiracy of 

Catiline, with a Dictionary and Notes. The text of this work, which was 
based upon that of Cortius, has been modified by reference to the best modern 
editions, especially by those of Kritz and Geriach ; and its orthography is, in 
general, conformed to that of Pottier and Planche. The Dictionaries of 
Caesar and Sallust connected with this series are original works, and, in con- 
nection with the Notes in each volume, furnish a very complete and satisfac- 
tory apparatus for the study of these two authors. 

11. Ovid. Selections from the Metamorphoses and Hero- 
ides of Ovid, with Notes, Grammatical References, and Exercises in Scanning. 
These selections from Ovid are designed as an introduction to Latin poetry. 
They are accompanied with numerous brief notes explanatory of difficult 
phrases, of obscure historical or mythological allusions, and especially of 
grammatical difficulties. To these are added such Exercises in Scanning as 
serve fully to introduce the student t6 a knowledge of Latin prosody, and 
especially of the structure and laws of hexameter and pentameter verse. 



New Series of Latin School Books. 

Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar has long since been intro- 
duced into the Latin School of the Citv of Boston, and into most 
of th< icipal Classical Schools in this country. It is adopted by 

all th 9 in New England, viz., Harvard, Yale, Dartmouth, 

Amhet liams, Bowdoin, Waterville, Middlebury, Burling- 

ton, Bi , jmversity at Providence, Wesleyan University at Mid- 
dletown,ar.< Washington College at Hartford; also at Hamilton Col- 
lege, New York, New York University, city of New York, Cincinnati 
College and Marietta College, Ohio, Randolph Macon College, 
Virginia, Mount Hope College, near Baltimore, Maryland Institute 
of Instruction and St. Mary's College, Baltimore, and the Univer- 
sities of Michigan and Alabama; and has been highly recommended 
by Professors Kingsley, Woolsey, Olmstead, and Gibbs, of Yale College; 
Professor Beck, of Harvard College ; President Penney and Professor North, 
of Hamilton College; Professor Packard, of Bowdoin College; Professo* 
Holland, of Washington College ; Professor Fisk, of Amherst College, and 
by Professor Hackett, of Brown University; — also by Messrs. Dillaway 
and Gardner, of the Boston Latin School ; Rev. Lyman Colman, of the 
English High School, Andover; Hon. John Hall, Principal of the Elling- 
ton School, Conn. ; Mr. Shaler, Principal of the Connecticut Literary 
Institution, at Suffield ; Simeon Hart, Esq., Farmington, Conn.; Pro- 
fessor Cogswell, of Round Hill School, Northampton ; President Shan- 
non, of Louisiana College, and by various periodicals. 

As a specimen of the communications received from the above sources, 
the following extracts are given : — 

It gives me great pleasure to bear my testimony to the superior merits of the 
Latin Grammar lately edited by Professor Andrews and Mr. Stoddard. I express 
most cheerfully, unhesitatingly, and decidedly, my preference of this Grammar 
to that of Adam, which has, for so long a time, kept almost undisputed swav 
•n our schools. — Dr. C. Beck, Professor of Latin in Harvard University. 

I know of no grammar published in this country, which promises to answer so 
well the purposes of elementary classical instruction, and shall be glad to see U 
introduced into our best schools. — Mr. Charles K. Dillaway, Master of the 
Public Latin School, Boston. 

Your new Latin Grammar appears to me much better suited to the use of 
students than any other grammar I am acquainted with. — Professor William 
M. Holland, Washington College, Hartford, Conn. 

I can with much pleasure say that your Grammar seems to me much better 
adapted to the present condition and wants of our schools than any one with which 
I am acquainted, and to supply that which has long been wanted — a good Latin 
grammar for common use. — Mr. F. Gardner, one of the Masters Boston Lat. Sch. 

The Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard is deserving, in my opinion, of 
the approbation which so many of our ablest teachers have bestowed upon it. 
It is believed that, of all the grammars at present before the public, this has 
greatly the advantage, in regard both to the excellence of its arrangement, ana 
the accuracy and copiousness of its information; and it is earnestly hoped that 
its merits will procure for it that general favor and use to which it is entitled. 
— H. B. Hackett, Professor of Biblical Literature in Newton Theol. Sem. 

The universal favor with which this Grammar is received was not unexpected. 
It will bear a thorough and discriminating examination. In the use of well- 
defined and expressive terms, especially in the syntax, we know of no Latin Or 
Greek grammar which is to be compared to this. — Amer. Quarterly Register. 

The Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard I consider a work of great 
merit. I have found in it several principles of the Latin language correctly ex- 

Clained which I had myself learned from a twenty years' study of that language, 
ut had never seen illustrated in any grammar. Andrews's First Lessons \ con« 

3 



New Series of Latin School Books. 

■ider a valuable work for beginners, and in the sphere which it is designed to 
occupy, I know not that I have met its equal. — Rev. James Shannon, President 
of College of Louisiana. 

These works will furnish a series of elementary publications for the study of 
Latin altogether in advance of any thing which has hitherto appeared, either in 
this country or in England. — American Biblical Repository. 

We have made Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar the subject both of 
reference and recitation daily for several months, and I cheerfully and decidedly 
bear testimony to its superior excellence to any manual of the kind with which 
I am acquainted. Every part bears the impress of a careful compiler. The 
principles of syntax are happily developed in the rules, whilst those relating to 
the moods and tenses supply an important deficiency in our former grammars. 
The rules of prosody are also clearly and fully exhibited Rev. Lyman Cole- 
man, Principal of Burr Seminary, Manchester, Vt. 

1 have examined Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, and regard it as 
superior to any thing of the kind now in use. It is what has long been needed, 
and will undoubtedly be welcomed by every one interested in the philology of 
the Latin language. We shall hereafter use it as a text-book in this institution. 
— Mr. Wm. H. Shaler, Principal of the Connecticut Lit. Institution at Svfiield. 

This work bears evident marks of great care and skill, and ripe and accurate 
scholarship in the authors. It excels most grammars in this particular, that, 
while by its plainness it is suited to the necessities of most beginners, by its 
fulness and detail it will satisfy the inquiries of the advanced scholar, and will 
be a suitable companion at all stages of his progress. We cordially commend 
it to the student and teacher. — Biblical Repository. 

Your Grammar is what I expected it would be — an excellent book, and just the 
thing which was needed. We cannot hesitate a moment in laying aside the 
books now in use, and introducing this. — Rev. J. Penney, D. D., President of 
Hamilton College, New York. 

Your Grammar bears throughout evidence of original and thorough investiga- 
tion and sound criticism. I hope, and doubt not, it will be adopted in our school? 
and colleges, it being, in my apprehension, so far as simplicity is concerned, on 
the one hand, and philosophical views and sound scholarship on the other, far 
preferable to other grammars ; a work at the same time highly creditable to your- 
selves and to our country. — Professor A. Packard, Bowdoin College, Maine. 

This Grammar appears to me to be accommodated alike to the wants of the 
new beginner and the experienced scholar, and, as such, well fitted to supply 
what has long been felt to be a great desideratum in the department of classical 
learning. — Professor S. North, Hamilton College, New York. 

From such an examination of this Grammar as 1 have been able to give it, 1 
do not hesitate to pronounce it superior to any other with which I am acquainted. 
1 have never seen, any where, a greater amount of valuable matter compressed 
within limits equally narrow. —Hon. John Hall, Prin. of Ellington School, Conn. 

We have no hesitation in pronouncing this Grammar decidedly superior to 
any now in use. — Boston Recorder. 

1 am ready to express my great satisfaction with your Grammar, and do not 
hesitate to say, that 1 am better pleased with such portions of the syntax as 1 
have perused, than with the corresponding portions in any other grammar with 
which I am acquainted. — Professor N. \V. Fiske, Amherst College, Mass. 

I know of no grammar in the Latin language so well adapted to answer the 
purpose for which it was designed as this. The book of Questions is a valuable 
attendant of the Grammar. — Simeon Hart, Esq., Farmington, Conn. 

This Grammar has received the labor of years, and is the result of much re- 
flection and experience, and mature scholarship. As such, it claims the atten- 
tion of all who are interested in the promotion of sound learning. — N. Y. Obs. 

This Grammar is an original work. Its arrangement is philosophical, and iti 
rules clear and precise, beyond those of any other grammar we have seen 
Portland Christian Mirror. 

4 



GRAMMAR 



LATIN LANGUAGE; 



USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



E. A. ANDREWS AND S. STODDARD. 



THE SIXTY-FIFTH EDITION. 
REVISED WITH CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS, 

BY E. A. ANDREWS, LL. D, 



0^-U- 



n* 



BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED BY CROCKER AND BREW 

47 "Washington Street. 
1857. 



»^ 



i^tfh 



s 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, 

BY CROCKER AND BREWSTER, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 



PREFACE 



As more than twenty years have elapsed, since the first publication of this 
Grammar, it can scarcely be necessary, in offering to the public a revised 
edition of the work, to make more than a passing allusion to its original plan 
or to the circumstances to which it owed its origin. 

For some years previous to the date of its publication, the progress of classi- 
cal learning in Europe, and particularly in Germany, had been such, as plainly 
to indicate the necessity of a corresponding advance in the manuals of Latin 
grammar employed in the schools of this country. Their deficiencies had 
indeed become so apparent, that various attempts had already been made to 
furnish a remedy by means of translations of German grammars ; but none of 
these, however excellent in many respects, had seemed to be fully adapted to 
the purpose for which they were intended. 

To unite the acknowledged excellencies of the older English manuals and of 
the more recent German grammars was the special aim of the authors of this 
work ; and to this end their attention was directed, first to the preparation of 
more extended rules for the pronunciation of the language, secondly to a clearer 
exposition of its inflectional changes, thirdly to the proper basis of its syntax, 
and fourthly to greater precision in its rules and definitions. 

The system of rules for the division and accentuation of Latin words, pre- 
pared in pursuance of the plan which has just been specified, was accordingly 
more copious than any previously found in the Latin grammars in common 
use in this country. For the purpose also of preventing the formation of erro- 
neous habits of pronunciation in the early part of the student's course, the pe- 
nultimate quantities of all Latin words occurring in the Grammar were care- 
fully marked, unless determinable by some general rule, and the paradigms 
were divided and accented in such a manner as to indicate their true pro- 
nunciation. 

In their treatment of Latin etymology, the authors aimed to render its study 
less a mere exercise of memory, and in a greater degree an efficient aid in the 
general cultivation of the mental powers. The principal means adopted for this 
purpose consisted in the practical demotion, every where made in treating 
inflected words, between the root, or ground-form, and the termination. 



4 PREFACE. 

The third prominent peculiarity of the original work was its direct derivation 
of the rules of Syntax from the logical analysis of sentences, and its distinct 
specification of the particular use of each of the several words of which a sen- 
tence is composed. This method of treating syntax — a method previously un- 
known in the schools of this country — has, since that period, been extensively 
adopted, and in some instances greatly extended, particularly in a portion of 
the English grammars recently published in this country, and has probably 
contributed more to the advancement of grammatical science, than any other 
innovation of modern times. 

The errors noticed in the original work have been corrected, as successive 
editions have issued from the press, but no opportunity has occurred, until the 
present, of thoroughly revising it in every part. Two years of continuous 
labor have now been devoted to its revision, and to the purpose of rendering 
it conformable in all respects to the advanced position which it originally 
aspired to occupy. 

In all the modifications which have now been made, I have aimed to accom- 
plish these two purposes — to preserve, as far as possible, the identity of the 
work, and at the same time to bring it as near, as should be practicable, to the 
present state of philological science. Hence, while I have made no changes 
either in language or arrangement, but such as appeared to me quite neces- 
sary, I have omitted none which logical accuracy or requisite fulness of ex- 
planation seemed to demand. In doing even this it soon became evident, that 
the changes and additions must be more numerous, than would well consist 
with the convenient use of the old and the new editions in the same classes. 
Though not insensible of the trouble occasioned to the teacher by altera- 
tions in a familiar text-book, I could not but suppose, that such modifications 
as the progress of the last twenty years had rendered necessary, would still be 
welcomed by him, notwithstanding the personal inconvenience arising from 
the disturbance of his previous associations. To his pupils, who will have 
known no other form of the Grammar, than that in which it now appears, the 
work, it is believed, will not only be as easy of comprehension in its new, as 
in its old form, but in its practical application far more satisfactory. 

Of the minor changes and additions occurring on almost every page, and 
even of the occasional rearrangement of small portions of the materials, it is 
unnecessary to speak particularly. The student familiar with former editions 
will at once detect these slight modifications, and note them in his memory 
for future use; and though he may fail to find a rule, exception, or remark on 
the page where he has been wont to see it, he will still meet with it in the 
same relative position, — in the same section and subdivision of the section in 
which it formerly appeared. 

In the department of Orthoepy will now be found some account of the Con- 
tinental mode of pronouncing Latin; and, by means of the joint exhibition of 



PREFACE. O 

this and of the English methods, the student will be able to use the Grammar 
with equal facility, whether choosing to adhere to the usual pronunciation of 
English and American scholars, or preferring that of the continental schools. 

In the Etymology of nouns, no other alteration need be specified, except the 
introduction, in the third declension, of " Rules for forming the nominative 
singular from the root." These are copied, in a modified form, from the edi- 
tor's First Latiu Book. In themselves they are of considerable utility in 
showing the mutual relations between the sounds of certain letters, and they 
are also closely connected with corresponding changes in son^e of the verbal 
roots. In the Etymology of adjectives, besides the minor modifications already 
alluded to, a few changes in arrangement have been made in those sections 
which relate to Comparison. To pronouns have been added some remarks on 
Pronominal Adjectives, which seemed to require a more particular notice, 
than they had heretofore received, both in their relation to each other and 
to the Adverbial Correlatives. The Etymology of particles has been treated 
somewhat more fully than in former editions — a fulness especially observable 
in relation to adverbs and conjunctions, and which was rendered necessary 
by the more extended treatment of those particles in the revised Syntax. 

In almost every section of the Syntax the student will meet with modifica- 
tions and especially with additions, which, as in other parts of the work, are 
introduced in such a manner as seldom to interfere with the references made 
to former editions in the series based upon this Grammar. The principal ex- 
ception to the latter remark is to be found in sections 247 — 251, which relate 
to certain uses of the ablative. 

A comparison of the Prosody in the present and former editions will show, 
that it has been revised with minute care in every part. Similar attention has 
also been given to the Appendix, in which will be found some additions relat- 
ing to Roman Money, Weights and Measures. For the greater convenience of 
the student the Index in this edition has been much enlarged. 

In conclusion, I would briefly indicate the principal sources from which 
have been derived the various additions and corrections, to which allusion has 
been made. In preparing the original work, the earlier editions of Zumpt's 
Grammar were consulted at almost every step, and while frequent use was 
made of the grammars of Scheller, Grant, Adam, Ruddiman, Hickie and 
others, the treatises of Zumpt were even then regarded as the most valuable 
embodiment of the principles of Latin philology. It was therefore natural 
and almost unavoidable, in revising a work which had in so many points re- 
ceived both its form and its substance from the earlier labors of that distin- 
guished grammarian, to look to his maturer works for many of the materials 
by means of which our original sketch should be made more complete. 
Accordingly I have constantly consulted the last edition of his Grammar, 
translated by Dr. Schmitz, and have freely incorporated in this edition such 
1* 



6 PREFACE. 

of its materials, as were suited to my purpose. In most cases his ideas have 
been either expressed in my own language, or in language so modified as to 
suit the general plan of my work. In the Etymology, and not unfrequently in 
the Syntax also, the copious Grammar of Ramshorn has furnished valuable 
materials ; and the Grammars of Key and of Ktihner, the latter translated by 
Prof. Champlin, have been consulted with profit and satisfaction. In the 
sections comprising conjunctions, and especially in those relating to gram- 
matical analysis, I am happy to acknowledge my indebtedness to Prof. S. S. 
Greene of Brown University. To the sources already specified I must add the 
Latin Lexicon of Dr. Freund, in editing a translation of which I had frequent 
occasion to note such matters as promised to be of utility in the revision of this 
Grammar. The additions in the Appendix relating to Roman money, etc., 
are taken principally from Dr. Riddle's translation of Dr. Freund's School 
Dictionary. To these references I will only add, that such other notes re- 
lating to Latin philology, as I have made during the past twenty years, so 
far as they were adapted to my purpose, have either been used in my former 
occasional corrections, or are incorporated in the present edition. 

In taking a final leave of the earliest of the elementary Latin works with 
which my name has been associated, and with which, in my own mind, must 
ever be connected the pleasant memory of my early friend and associate, 
Prof. Stoddard, I trust I shall be pardoned in commending it once more to 
the kind indulgence of the teachers of this country, and in expressing the 
hope that, in its present form, it will be deemed not altogether unworthy of a 
continuance of the favor which it has so long received. I cannot indeed ven- 
ture to indulge the hope, that all the imperfections of the work have even now 
been removed, or that, in my attempts to render it more perfect, I may not 
sometimes have fallen into new errors ; but this I can truly say, that since its 
first publication I have devoted much time to its revision, and have sought to 
manifest my sense of the kindness with which it has been received, by doing 
all in my power to render it less unworthy of public favor. 

E. A. ANDREWS. 

New Britain, Conn., Oct., 1857. 



CONTENTS 



Page. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters 9 

Division of letters 10 

Diphthongs 10 

Punctuation 10 

ORTHOEPY. 

Continental pronunciation 11 

English pronunciation 11 

Sounds of the letters 11 

of the vowels 11 

of the diphthongs 12 

of the consonants 13 

Quantity of syllables 14 

Accentuation 15 

Latin accents 15 

English accents 16 

Division of words into syllables. ... 16 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Nouns 19 

Gender 20 

Number 22 

Cases 23 

Declensions 23 

First declension 25 

Greek nouns 26 

Second declension 26 

Greek nouns 29 

Third declension 29 

Formation of nom. sing 30 

Rules for the gender 33 

oblique cases 36 

Greek nouns 45 

Fourth declension 45 

Fifth declension „ 47 

Declension of compound nouns . . 47 

Irregular nouns 48 

Variable nouns 48 

Defective nouns 49 

Redundant nouns 54 

Derivation of nouns 56 

Composition of nouns 60 

Adjectives 61 

Adjectives of the first and second 

declensions 62 

Adjectives of the third declension 64 

Rules for the oblique cases. ... 67 



Page. 

Irregular adjectives 69 

Defective adjectives 69 

Redundant adjectives 69 

Numeral adjectives 70 

Comparison of adjectives 74 

Irregular comparison 75 

Defective comparison 76 

Derivation of adjectives 78 

Composition of adjectives 81 

Pronouns 82 

Substantive pronouns 82 

Adjective pronouns 83 

Demonstrative pronouns 83 

Intensive pronouns 85 

Relative pronouns 86 

Interrogative pronouns 87 

Indefinite pronouns 88 

Possessive pronouns 89 

Patrial pronouns 90 

Pronominal adjectives 90 

Verbs 91 

Voices 91 

Moods 92 

Tenses 93 

Numbers 95 

Persons 95 

Participles, gerunds, and supines 95 

Conjugation 96 

Table of terminations 98 

Sum 100 

JProsum, Possum, etc 102 

First conjugation 103 

Second conjugation 108 

Third conjugation Ill 

Fourth conjugation 116 

Deponent verbs 120 

Remarks on the conjugations.. . 121 

Periphrastic conjugations 123 

General rules of conjugation . . . 124 
Formation of second and third 

roots 125 

First conjugation 125 

Second conjugation 129 

Third conjugation 131 

Fourth conjugation 139 

Irregular verbs 140 

Defective verbs 145 

Impersonal verbs. 147 



8 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Redundant verbs 150 

Derivation of verbs 152 

Composition of verbs 154 

Particles 155 

Adverbs 155 

Derivation of adverbs 160 

Composition of adverbs 162 

Comparison of adverbs 163 

Prepositions 163 

Prepositions in composition 167 

Conjunctions 170 

Interjections , . 176 

SYNTAX. 

Sentences and Propositions 177 

Subject 178 

Predicate 181 

Apposition 183 

Adjectives 184 

Relatives 189 

Demonstratives, etc 193 

Reflexives 198 

Nominative 200 

Subject-nominative and verb.. . 200 

Predicate-nominative 205 

Genitive 206 

Genitive after nouns 206 

after partitives 211 

after adjectives 214 

after verbs 216 

of place 221 

after particles 222 

Dative 222 

Dative after adjectives 222 

after verbs 225 

after particles 230 

Accusative 231 

Accusative after verbs 231 

after prepositions . . . 237 

of time and space . . 239 

of place 240 

. after adjectives, ad- 
verbs and interjections 241 

Subject-accusative 242 

Vocative 243 

Ablative 243 

Ablative after prepositions 243 

. • after certain nouns, 

adjectives and verbs 244 

of cause, etc 246 

of price 252 

of time 252 

of place 254 

after comparatives 255 

absolute 258 

Connection of tenses 261 

Indicative mood 263 

Subjunctive mood 265 



Page. 

Protasis and apodosis 268 

Subjunctive after particles 269 

after qui 275 

in indirect questions 278 

in inserted clauses.. 279 

Imperative mood 281 

Infinitive mood 282 

Participles 292 

Gerunds and gerundives. ........ 296 

Supines 299 

Adverbs 300 

Prepositions 303 

Conjunctions 304 

Interjections . 306 

Arrangement 306 

Arrangement of words 306 

of clauses 310 

Analysis 312 

Parsing 313 

PROSODY. 

Quantity 319 

General rules 319 

Special rules 322 

Fh*st and middle syllables — 322 

Derivative words 322 

Compound words 324 

Increment of nouns 325 

Increment of verbs 329 

Penults and antepenults... . 331 

Final syllables 336 

Versification 341 

Feet 341 

Metre - 342 

Verses 342 

Figures of prosody 343 

Arsis and tbesis 346 

Caesura 347 

Different kinds of metre 347 

Dactylic metre 347 

Anapaestic metre 350 

Iambic metre 351 

Trochaic metre 353 

Choriambic metre 354 

Ionic metre 355 

Compound metres 356 

Combination of verses 356 

Horatian metres 357 

Key to the odes of Horace 359 

APPENDIX. 

Grammatical figures 361 

Tropes and figures of rhetoric 363 

Roman mode of reckoning time. . . 367 

money, weight, etc. 370 

Abbreviations 374 

Different ages of Roman literature 374 

Writers of the different ages 376 

INDEX 378 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§ 1. The Latin language is the language spoken by the an- 
cient Romans. Latin Grammar teaches the principles of the 
Latin language. These relate, 

1. To its written characters ; 

2. To its pronunciation ; 

3. To the classification and derivation of its words ; 

4. To the construction of its sentences ; 

5. To the quantity of its syllables, and its versification. 

The first part is called Orthography ; the second, Orthoepy ; the 
third, Etymology ; the fourth, Syntax ; and the fifth, Prosody. 



ORTHOGKAPHY. 

§ 2, Orthography treats of the letters, and other characters 
of written language, and the proper mode of spelling words. 

1. The Latin alphabet consists of twenty-five letters. They have 
the same names as the corresponding characters in English. They 
are A, a ; B, b ; C, c ; D, d ; E, e ; F, f ; G, g ; H, h ; I, i ; J, j ; 
K, k; L, 1; M, m ; N, n; O, o ; P, p; Q, q; R,r; S,s; T,t; U, u; 
V, v ; X, x ; Y, y ; Z, z. 

2. The Komans used only the capital letters. 

3. /and / were anciently but one character, as were likewise u and v. 

4. W is not found in Latin words, and k occurs only at the beginning of a 
few words before a, and even in these c is commonly used, except in their ab- 
breviated form ; as, K or Kal. for Kalendx or Gdencice, the Calends. 

5. Fand z are found only in words derived from the Greek. 

6. H, though called a letter, only denotes a breathing, or aspiration. 



The consonants are 
divided into 



10 DIPHTHONGS. — PUNCTUATION. § 3 5. 

DIVISION OF LETTERS. 

§ •$. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

1. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. 

"Liquids, I, m, n, r. 

( Labials, p, b, f, v. 

Mutes, •< Palatals, c, g, k, q, j. 

(Linguals, . . . . t, d. 

Sibilant, s. 

Double consonants, . . . . x, z. 
n Aspirate, h. 

2. Xis equivalent to cs or gs; z to ts or ds; and, except in com- 
pound words, the double consonant is always written, instead of the 
letters which it represents. In some Greek words x is equivalent 
to chs. 

Diphthongs. 

§ 4. Two vowels, in immediate succession, in the same syl- 
lable, are called a diphthong. 

The diphthongs are ae, ai, au, ei, ew, oe, m, ua, we, ui, uo, uu, and yi. 
Ae and oe are frequently written together, ce, 02. 

PUNCTUATION. 

§ t5« The only mark of punctuation used by the ancients was a point, 
which denoted pauses of different length, according as it was placed at the top, 
the middle, or the bottom of the line. The moderns use the same marks or 
punctuation, in writing and printing Latin, as in their own languages, and as- 
sign to them the same power. 

Marks of quantity and of accent are sometimes found in Latin authors, espe- 
cially in elementary works : — 

1. There are three marks of quantity, viz. *,;-, *; the first de- 
notes that the vowel over which it stands is short ; the second, that it 
is long ; the third, that it is doubtful, that is, sometimes long and 
sometimes short. 

2. There are also three written accents — the acute ( '), the grave 
( N ), and the circumflex ("). These were used by the old gramma- 
rians to denote the rising and sinking of the voice in the Roman mode 
of pronouncing words. (See §§ 14 and 15.) In modern elementary 
Latin works, the acute marks the emphatic syllable of a word, (§ 16), 
the grave distinguishes certain particles from other words spelled in 
the same manner ; as, quod, because ; quod, which ; and the circum- 
flex is placed over certain penultimate and final syllables that are 
formed by contraction. 

The diaeresis ( ") denotes that the vowel over which it stands does 
not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel ; as, aer, the air. It 
is used principally with ae, ai, and oe. 



§ 6, 7. ORTHOEPY. — SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 11 



ORTHOEPY. 

§ 6. Orthoepy treats of the right pronunciation of words. 

The ancient pronunciation of the Latin language being in a great measure 
lost, the learned, in modern times, have applied to it those principles which 
regulate the pronunciation of their own languages ; and hence has arisen, in 
different countries, a great diversity of practice. 

The various systems now prevalent in Europe, may, however, be reduced to 
two — the Continental and the English — the former prevailing, with only slight 
diversities, in most of the countries of continental Europe, and the latter in 
England. Their principal difference is found in the pronunciation of the vowels 
and diphthongs, since, in both methods, the consonants are pronounced in 
nearly the same manner. 

The Continental Method. 

[According to this system, each of the vowels, when standing at 
the end of a syllable, is considered as having but one sound, which, 
however, may be either short or long. Thus, 

Short a, as in hat. Long 5, as in no. 

Long a, as in father. Short u, as in tub. 

Short e, as in met. Long ii, as in full. 

Long e, as in there. se or oe, as e in there. 

Short 1, as in sit. au, as ou in our. 

Long I, as in machine. eu, as in feudal. 

Short 6, as in not. ei, as i in ice. 

Remark. These sounds are sometimes slightly modified when 
followed by a consonant in the same syllable.] 

The English Method. 

In the following rules for dividing and pronouncing Latin words, regard has 
been had both to English analogy and to the laws of Latin accentuation. See 
$ 14 and 15. The basis of this system is that which is exhibited by Walker in 
his " Pronunciation of Greek and Latin Proper Names." To pronounce cor- 
rectly, according to this method, a knowledge of the following particulars is 
requisite : — 

1. Of the sounds of the letters in all their combinations. 

2. Of the quantities of the penultimate and final syllables. 

3. Of the place of the accent, both primary and secondary. 

4. Of the mode of dividing words into syllables. 

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

I. Of the Vowels. 

§ 7. A vowel, when ending an m accented syllable, has al- 
ways its long English sound ; as, 

pa'-ter, de'-dit, vi'-vus, W-tus, tu'-ba, Trf-rm ; in which the accented vowels 
are pronounced as in fatal, metre, vital, total, tutor, tyrant. 



12 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. § 8, 9. 

1. A, at the end of an unaccented syllable, has nearly the sound 
of a in father or in ah, but less distinct or prolonged ; as, mu'-sa, 
e-pis'-to-la, a-cer'-bus, Pal-a-me-des ; pronounced mu'-zah, etc. 

2. E, o, and u, at the end of an unaccented syllable, have nearly 
the same sound as when accented, but shorter and less distinct ; as, 
re'-te, vo'-lo, u'-su-i. 

3. (a.) / final has always its long sound ; as, qui, au'-di, le-ga-ti. 

Rem. 1. The final t of tibi and sibi has its short sound. 

(&.) 7, at the end of an unaccented syllable not final, has an indis- 
tinct sound like short e; as, Fa'-bi-us (fa'-be-us), phi-los'-o-phus (phe- 
los'-o-phus). 

Exc. I has its long sound in the first syllable of a word the second of which 
is accented, when it either stands alone before a consonant, as in i-do'-ne-us, or 
ends a syllable before a vowel, as in fi-e'-bam. 

Rem. 2. Y is always pronounced like i in the same situation. 

§ 8. A vowel has always its short English sound, when fol- 
lowed by a consonant in the same syllable ; as, 

mag'-nus, reg'-num, fin'-go, hoc, fins' -tis, cyg'nus, in which the vowels are pro- 
nounced as in magnet, seldom, finish, copy, lustre, symbol. 

Exception 1. A, when it follows qu before dr and rt, has the 
sounds of a in quadrant and in quart ; as, qua'-dro, quad-ra-gin'-ta, 
quar'-tus. In other connections a before r has the sound of a in 
part ; as, par-ti-ceps, ar'-ma ; except when followed by another r, as 
in par-ri-ci-da. 

Exc. 2. Es, at the end of a word, is pronounced like the English 
word ease ; as, ig'-nes, au'-des. 

Exc. 3. Os, at the end of plural cases, is pronounced like ose in 
dose ; as, nos, il'-los, dom-i-nos. 

Exc. 4. Post is pronounced like the same word in English ; so 
also are its compounds ; as, post'-quam, post'-e-a ; but not its deriva- 
tives ; as, pos-tre-mus. 

Exc. 5. E, i and y before final r, or before r in a syllable not final, when 
followed in the next syllable by any other consonant, except r, have the sound 
of e and i in the English words her and fir ; as, fer, fert, fer'U-lis ; Mr, hir'- 
cus, myr'-tus. 

II. Of the Diphthongs. 

§ 9. Ae and oe are always diphthongs unless separated by diae- 
resis. They are pronounced as e would be in the same situation ; as, 
ce'-tas, ces'-tas, poz'-na, ces'-trum. 

1. Ai, ei, oi, and yi, usually have the vowels pronounced separately. 
When they are accented, and followed by another vowel, the i is 
pronounced like initial y, and the vowel before it has its long sound •, 
as, Maia, Pompeius, Troia, Harpyia ; pronounced Ma'-ya, Pom-pe- 
yus, Tro'-ya, Har-py'-ya. 



§ 10, 11. SOUNDS OF THE CONSONANTS. 13 

Remark 1. Ei, when a diphthong and not followed by another vowel, is 
pronounced like » ; as in hei, om'-neis. 

2. Au, when a diphthong, is pronounced like aw ; as, laus, au'-rum y 
pronounced laws, etc. 

Rem. 2. In the termination of Greek proper names, the letters au are pro- 
nounced separately ; as, Men-e-la-us. 

3. Eu, when a diphthong, is pronounced like long u ; as, heu, Or- 
pheus (or'-phuse), Eu-phrd-tes. 

Rem. 3. The letters eu are pronounced separately imthe terminations eus 
and turn of Latin nouns, and of all adjectives, whether Greek or Latin, except 
neuter ; as, ur'-ce-us, me'-us, me'-um, e'-um. In other situations they form a 
diphthong; as, Eu-^ro'-pa, Tke'-seus, e'-heu. 

4. Ua, ue, ui, uo, uu, when diphthongs, are pronounced like toa, 
we, etc. ; as, lin'-gua, que-ror, sua'-de-o, quo'-tus, e'-quus. They are 
always diphthongs after q, usually also after g, and often after s. 

6. Ui in cui and huic, when monosyllables, is pronounced like wi, and by 
some like long i. 

HI. Of the Consonants. 

§ 10. The consonants have, in general, the same power in 
Latin as in English words. 

The following cases, however, require particular attention. 

c. 

C has the sound of s before e, i, and y, and the diphthongs ce, ce, 
and eu; as, ce'-do, ci'-bus, Cce'-sar, cce'-lum, ceu, Cy'-rus. In other 
situations, it has the sound of k ; as, Ca'-to, cru'-dus, lac. 

1. Ch has always the sound of k ; as, charta (kar'-tah), machina 
(mak'-e-nah). 

Exc. C, following or ending an accented syllable, before i followed by a 
vowel, and also before eu and yo, has the sound of sh; as, soda (so'-she-ah), 
caduceus (ca-du'she-us), Sicyon (sish'-e-on). 

Remark. In the pronunciation of the ancient Romans, the hard sound of c and g seems 
to have been retained in all their combinations. 

u. 

G has its soft sound, like /, before e, t, and y, and the diphthongs 
cb andce ; as ge'-nus, ag'-i-lis, Gy'-ges, Goz-tu-li. In other situations, 
it has its hard sound, as in bag, go. 

Exc. When g comes before g soft, it coalesces with it in sound ; as, agger 
(a^-er), txaggeratio (ex-aj-e-ra'-she-o). 

s. 

§ 11. S has generally its hissing sound, as in so, thus. 

Exc. 1. (a.) When si followed by a vowel is immediately preceded by a 
consonant in an accented syllable, the s has the sound of sh ; as, Per'-si-a 
(per'-she-a). 

2 



14 QUANTITIES OP PENULTIMATE AND FINAL SYLLABLES. 

(&.) But when si or zi followed by a vowel is immediately preceded by an 
accented vowel, the s or z has the sound of zh; as, As-pa'-si-a (as-pa'-zhe-ah), 
Sa-ba'-zi-a (sa-ba'-zhe-ah). 

Note. In a few proper names, 5 preceded by a vowel in an accented syllable and follow- 
ed by i before another vowel, has the sound, not of zh, but of sh ; as, A'-si-a (a'-she-a) : so 
Sosia, Theodosia, Lysias. 

Exc. 2. S, at the end of a word, after e, m, au, b, m, n, and r, has 
the sound of z; as, res, ces, laus, trabs, hi' -ems, lens, Mars. 

English analogy has* also occasioned the s in Cce'-sar, cce-su'-ra, mi'-ser, mu'- 
sa, re-sid '-u-um, cau'-sa, ro'-sa, and their derivatives, and in some other words, 
to take the sound of z. Cces-a-re'-a, and the oblique cases of Ccesar, retain the 
hissing sound ; so likewise the compounds of trans ; as, trans'-e-o. 

T. 

§ 1£5. 1. T, following or ending an accented syllable before i 
followed by a vowel, has the sound of sh ; as, ratio (ra'-she-o), Sulpi- 
tius (sul-pish'-e-us). 

Exc. T, in such case, retains its hard sound (a J after s, t, or x ; as, Sal-fas'- 
ti-us, Brut'-ti-i, Sex'-ti-us : (b) in proper names in tion and tyon ; as, Eu-ryV-i-on, 
Am-phic'-ty-on ; and (c) in old infinitives in er; as, flec'-ti-er, for flec'-ti. 



2. X, at the beginning of a syllable, has the sound of z; at the end, 
that of ks ; as, Xenophon (zen'-o-phon) ; axis (ak'-sis). 

Exc. 1. When ex or ux is followed by a vowel in an accented syllable, x 
has the s\)und of gz; as, exemplum (eg-zem'-plum), ux-</-ri-us (ug-zV-re-us), 
inexhaustus (in-eg-zaus'-tus). 

Exc. 2. X, ending an accented syllable before i followed by a vowel, and 
before u ending a syllable, has the power of ksh ; as, rwxius (nok'-she-us), 
pexui (pek'-shu-i). 

Remark. Ch and ph, before th, in the beginning of a word, are silent ; as, Chthonia 
(tho / -ni-a). Phthia (thi'-a). Also in the following combinations of consonants, in the be- 
ginning of words of Greek origin, the first letter is not sounded: — mne-mon' '-l-ca, gnaf- 
vus, tme'-sis, Cte'-si-as, Ptol-e-Tncz'-us, psal'-lo. 

OF THE QUANTITIES OF THE PENULTIMATE AND 
FINAL SYLLABLES. 

§ 13. 1. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time oc- 
cupied in pronouncing it. 

2. A short syllable requires, in pronunciation, half the time of a 
long one. 

Rem. The penultimate syllable, or penult, is the last syllable but one. The antepenult 
is the last syllable but two. 

The quantity of a syllable is generally to be learned from the rules of prosody, §§ 282 — 
301 ; but for the convenience of the student, the following general rules are here in- 
serted : — 



3. A vowel before another vowel or h is short. 

4. Diphthongs, not beginning with u, are long. 



§ 14, 15. ACCENTUATION. 15 

5. A vowel before x, z, /, or any two consonants, except a mute 
followed by a liquid, is long by position, as it is called. 

6. A vowel naturally short before a mute followed by a liquid is 
common, i. e. either long or short. 

In this Grammar, -when the quantity of a penult is determined by one of the preceding 
rules, it is not marked; in other cases, except in dissyllables, the proper mark is written 
over its vowel. 

To pronounce Latin words correctly, it is necessary to ascertain the quantities of their 
last two syllables only ; and tbe rules for the quantities of final syllables would, for this 
purpose, be unnecessary, but for the occasional addition of enclitics. As these are gen- 
erally monosyllables, and, for the purpose of accentuation, are considered as parts of the 
words to which they are annexed, they cause the final syllable of the original word to 
become the penult of the compound. But as the enclitics begin with a consonant, the 
final vowels of all words ending with a consonant, if previously short, are, by the addi- 
tion of an enclitic, made long by position. It is necessary, therefore, to learn the quan- 
tities of those final syllables only which end with a voibel. 

OF ACCENTUATION. 

I. Of Latin Accents. 

§ 14r« 1. Accent, in Latin, signifies the rising and falling of the voice in 
pronouncing the syllables of a Latin word. It is a general rule of the Latin 
language, that every word has its accent. The enclitics, however, have no ac- 
cent of their own, but they modify the accent of the words to which they are 
annexed, and prepositions lose their accent, when they precede the cases which 
they govern. 

2. The Latin language has three accents, the acute ( / ), or rising tone, the 
grave ( ' ), or falling tone, and the circumflex ( A ), composed of the acute and the 
grave, i. e. of the rising and the falling tone. 

3. A monosyllable, when short by nature, takes the acute, when long by nature, the 
circumflex accent ; as, pix, et, pars ; dos, j&s, spes. 

4. In words of two syllables, the penult is always accented ; 
as, pa'ter, md'-ter, pen'-na. 

Rem. 1. Words of two syllables have the circumflex accent, when the vowel of the pe- 
nult is naturally long and that of the last syllable short ; as, Rd-ma, mh-sa, lii-c&, jti-rts ; 
if otherwise, they have the acute; as, nd'-mb*, de'ds, Ro'-rna. (abl.), and ar'-ft, in which 
a is long only by position. 

5. In words of more than two syllables, if the penult is long, 
it is accented ; but if it is short, the accent is on the antepenult ; 
as, a-mt'-cus, dom'-i-nus. 

Rem. 2. When the accent of a word of more than two syllables falls upon the penult, 
it may be either the circumflex or the acute according as the last syllable is short or long. 
The antepenult can take no acceut except the acute, and in no case can the accent be 
drawn farther back than to the antepenult. 

Exc. Vocatives of the second declension in i, instead of ie, from nominatives 
in ius, and genitives in i, instead of n, are accented as they would be, if the re- 
jected letters were annexed, i. e. with the acute upon the penult, even when 
it is short; as, Vir-gil-i ; Va-U'-ri, in-ge'-ni. So, also, the compounds of facio 
with words which are not prepositions ; as, cal-t-fa'-cit, tep-e-fd / -dt. 

§ 15. If the penult is common, the accent, in prose, is upon 
the antepenult ; as, vol'-u-cris, phar'-e-tra, ib'-i-que : but genitives 
in ius, in which i is common, accent their penult in prose ; as, 
u-ra'-us, is-tV-us. 



16 DIVISION OP WORDS. § 16-18. 

Rem. 3. All the syllables of a Latin word, except that on which the acute or circum- 
flex accent falls, are supposed to have the grave accent, and were pronounced with the 
lower tone. 

1. The rules for the accentuation of compound and simple words 
are the same ; as, se'-cum, sub'-e-o. 

2. In accentuation, the enclitics gue, ne, ve, and also those which 
are annexed to pronouns,* are accounted constituent parts of the words 
to which they are subjoined ; as, i'-ta, it'-d-que ; vi'-rum, vi-rum'-que. 

II. Of English Accents. 

§ 16. Accent, in English, is a particular stress of voice upon 
certain syllables of words. Cf. § 5, 2. 

According to the English method of pronouncing Latin, a word may have 
two, three, or even fonr accents. That accent which is nearest to the termina- 
tion of the word, and which always corresponds in position with the Latin ac- 
cent, is called the primary or principal accent, and the secondary accent is that 
which next precedes the primary. The third and fourth accents, in like man- 
ner, precede the secondary, and are subject in all respects to the same rules; 
as, pa'-ter, md'-ter, ser-mo'-nes, dom'-i-nis ; pe-ri&'-u-lum, con" -ju-ra' -ti-o, op'"- 
por-tu"-ni-ta'-tes, ex-er""-ci-ta" / -ti-on"-i-bus , -que. 

1. If only two syllables precede the primary accent, the secondary 
accent is on the first ; as, mod"-e-ra-tus, tol"-e-rab'-i-lis. 

2. If three or four syllables stand before the primary accent, the 
secondary accent is placed, sometimes on the first, and sometimes on 
the second syllable; as, de-mori 'stra-ban '-tur, ad"-o-les-cen'-ti-a. 

3. Some words which have only four syllables before the primary 
accent, and all which have more than four, have three accents ; as, 
mod'"-e-ra"-ti-o'-nis, toV'-e-ra-bW-i-o-rem, ex-er'"-ci-ta"-ti-o-nis. 

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

VOWELS. 

§ IT. Every Latin word is to be divided into as many syllables, 
as it has separate vowels and diphthongs. 

Remark. In the following rules, the term vowel includes not only single 
vowels, but diphthongs ; and when a particular vowel is mentioned, a diph- 
thong, also, ending with that vowel is intended. 

CONS ONANTS. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

§ 18. Remark. The following special rules, relating to particular letters 
or to particular combinations of letters, are in all cases to be regarded rather 
than the general rules, §§ 19 — 23, when the latter are inconsistent with the 
former. 

1. H, when standing alone between two vowels, is always joined 
to the vowel that follows it. 

Thus, mi'-hi, traf -he-re, co'-hors, co // -hor-ta / -ti-o. 

♦ These are te, met, pte, ee, cine, and dem; as, tute, egSmet, meapte, hicce, hicrtnt, idem. 



§ 19-21. DIVISION OF WORDS. SIMPLE WORDS. 17 

2. Ch, ph, and th, in the division of words into syllables, are con- 
sidered, not as separate letters, but as single aspirated mutes, and 
hence are never separated. 

Thus, A-chil'-les, Ach"-ra-di'-na, Neph'-e-le, Tef-thys. 

3. Gl, tl, and thl, when standing alone between any two vowels, 
unless the first be u, and bl after u are always separated. 

Thus, ^Ef-le, Ay-lau'-i'v.s, At'-las, ath-lef-i-cus ; — Pub'-U-us, Pvb-licf-6-la, res- 
pvb'-li-ca. 

4. In writing syllables, x, when standing alone between two vowels, 
is united to the vowel before it, but, in pronouncing such syllables, 
its elementary sounds are separated. 

Thus, sax'-um (sak'-sum) ; ax-il'-la (ak-siT-lah) ; ex-em'-plum (eg-zem'-plum) ; 
ux-o'-ri-us (ug-zo'-re-us). 

GENERAL RULES. 

I. Simple Words. 

§ 19. A. — A single Consonant between two Vowels. 

1. A single consonant, or a mute with I or r, between the last two 
vowels of a word, or between the vowels of any two unaccented syl- 
lables, must be joined to the latter vowel. 

Thus, t vapaf-ttr and au'-tem; th in c^-iher ; cl 'm.Hi-er'-d-cles ; q in a' -qua; 
cr in d'-cris and vol'-u-cris ; chr in a'-chras ; r in tol"-e-ra-bil'-i-us ; m in zt"-y- 
mo-lo'-gi-a ; l\nam ,/ -bu-ld-td f -ri-us; and gr in pzr"-e,-gi'i- / na'-ti-o. Respecting 
ch and th cf. § 18, 2. 

Exc. TU/-i and sU/-i are commonly excepted. 

§ 20. 2. A single consonant, or a mute with I or r, before the 

vowel of an accented syllable, must be joined to the accented vowel. 

Thus, t in i-tin'-e-ra ; d mvi-de'-to; th in <e-the'-ri-us ; cl in Eu-cli'-des and 

HeT^'-a-de'-a ; gr in a-gres'-tis and a-gri(/-d-la ; pr in ca-prcf-6-lus ; q in a-quaf- 

ri-us ; and phr in Eu-phra'tes. 

§ 21. 3. A single consonant after the vowel of any accented 
syllable, except a penult, must be joined to the accented vowel. 

Thus, m in dom'-i-nus and dom"-i-na'-ti-o ; t in pat'-e-ra ; th in Scyth'-i-a ; 
and q in axf-uiAa (ak'-we-lah), and Aq"-ui-ta'-ni-a (ak^-we-ta'-ne-ah). 

4. When a mute with I or r follows the vowel of any accented 
syllable, except the penult, the mute is to be joined to the accented 
vowel. 

Thus, cr in ac'-ri-ter, a&' '-ri-mo? '-ni-a ; tr in det"-ri-men'-tum ; pr in cap'-vi- 
pes, cajf'-ri-mul'-gus, phi in Paph' 1 '-la-go' '-ni-a ; and phr in Aph"-ro-dis / -i-a. 
Respecting phi and phr cf. § 18, 2. 

EXCEPTIOXS TO THE 3D AND 4TH RULES. 

Exc. 1. A single consonant, or a mute with I or r, after an accent- 
ed a, e, or o, and before two vowels the first of which is e, i, or y, 
must be joined to the syllable following the accent. 

2* 



18 COMPOUND WORDS. ETYMOLOGY. § 22-24. 

Thus, d in ra'-di-u$, tce'-di-um, me f/ -di-a'-tor ; r in hce'-re-o, Ca"-ry-a'-te$ ; 
ch in bra'-chi-um ; q in re'-qui-es, re"-qui-es'-co ; tr in pa'-tri-us, CE-iuZ-tri-a ; 
and r and I in cef'-re-a'-li-a. 

Exc. 2. A single consonant or a mute with I or r, after an accent- 
ed u, must be joined to the vowel following it. 

Thus, r in lu'-ri-dus, au'-re-us ; cr in Eu'-cri-tus ; gl in ju'-glans ; and pi in 
Nau'-pli-us, du'-pli-co, and du"-pli-ca'-tio. Cf. § 18, 3. 

§ S3. B. — Two Consonants between two Vowels. 

Any two consonants, except a mute followed by I or r in the cases 
before mentioned, when standing between two vowels, must be sepa- 
rated. 

Thus, rp in cor'-pus, rm in for' -ma and ger-ma'nus ; rv in ca-ter'-va ; sc in 
ad-o-les'-cens ; nn in an'-nus ; phth in aph'-tha ; cch in BacZ-chus and Bac"-cha- 
na'-li-a ; and thl in aih-W-ta. 

C. — Three or four Consonants between two Vowels. 

1. When three consonants stand between any two vowels, the last, 
or, if that be I or r after a mute, the two last, are joined to the latter 
vowel. 

Thus, mpt in emp'-tor, ad-emp'-ti-o ; str in fe-ne$'-tra ; mpl in ex-em'-plum ; 
rihr in ar-thri-tis. 

2. When four consonants stand between two vowels, two are joined 
to each vowel ; as, nstr in trans-trum. 

II. Compound Words. 

§ S3. 1. In dividing a compound word into syllables the com- 
ponent parts are to be separated, if the former part ends with a con- 
sonant ; as, ab-es'-se, in'-ers, cir'-cum-er'-ro, su'-per-est, sub'-i-tus, prce- 
ter'-e-a, trans'-i-tur, sub'-stru-o. So, also, if a consonant is inserted to 
prevent hiatus, it is joined to the preceding vowel ; as, prod'-e-o, red'- 
e-o, sed-it'-i-o. 

2. But if the former part either ends with a vowel, or has dropped 
its termination, it is to be divided like a simple word ; as, def'-e-ro, 
dil'-i-gens, be-nev'-o-lus, prces'-to, eg'-o-met ; — po'-tes, po-tes'-tis, an"-i- 
mad-ver'-to, ve'-ne-o (from venum, eo), mag-nan -i-mus, a?n-ba-ges, 
lon-gce'-vus. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 24:. 1. Etymology treats of the different classes of words, 
their derivation, and their various inflections. 

2. The classes, into which words are divided in reference to their significa- 
tion, are called Parts of Speech. 



§25,26. nouns. 19 

3. The parts of speech in Latin are eight — Substantive or 
Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunc- 
tion, and Interjection. 

4. The first four are injlected ; the last four, which are sometimes 
called Particles, are not injlected, except that some adverbs change 
their termination to express comparison. 

Rem. Substantives, pronouns, and adjectives are often included by grammarians un- 
der the general term nouns; but, in this Grammar, the word noun is used aa synony- 
mous with substantive only. 

§ 25. 1. To verbs belong Participles, Gerunds, and Supines, 
which partake of the meaning of the verb, and the inflection of the 
noun. 

2. Inflection, in Latin grammar, signifies a change in the ter- 
mination of a word. It is of three kinds — declension, conjuga- 
tion, and comparison. 

3. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, participles, gerunds, and supines, 
are declined ; verbs are conjugated, and adjectives and adverbs are 
compared. 

NOUNS. 

§ 20. 1. A substantive or noun is the name of an object. 

2. A proper noun is the name of an individual object ; as, 
Ccesar ; Roma, Rome ; Tiberis, the Tiber. 

3. A common or appellative noun is the name of a class of 
objects, to each of w T hich it is alike applicable ; as, homo, man or 
a man ; avis, a bird ; quercus, an oak ; leo, a lion ; mendacium, 
a falsehood. 

4. A collective noun is one which, in the singular number, de- 
notes a collection of individuals ; as, exercitus, an army. 

Rem. 1. The following are examples of nouns used as collectives, viz. exercitus, gens, 
juventus, multitudo, nobitltas, plebs, populus, turba, vis, and vulgus. 

5. An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action, or other 
attribute ; as, bonltas, goodness ; gaudium, joy ; festinatio, haste. 

Rem. 2. A concrete, in distinction from an abstract noun, is one which denotes an ob- 
ject that has an actual and independent existence ; as, Roma, hdmo, popUlus, ferrum. 

6. A material noun is the name of a substance considered in 
the gross ; as, lignum, wood ; ferrum, iron ; cibus, food. 

Rem. 3. Proper, abstract, and material nouns become common, when em- 
ployed to denote one or more of a class of objects. A verb in the infinitive 
mood is often used as an abstract noun. 

7. To nouns belong gender, number, and case. 

Rem. 4. Adjectives and participles have likewise different genders, num- 
bers, and cases, corresponding to those of nouns. 



20 GENDER. § 27-29. 

GENDER. 

§ ST. 1. The gender of a noun is its distinction in regard to 

sex. 

2. Nouns have three genders — the masculine, the feminine, and 
the neuter. 

3. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical. 

4. Those nouns are naturally masculine or feminine, which are used to de- 
signate the sexes ; as, vir, a man ; mulier, a woman. 

5. Those are grammatically masculine or feminine, which, though denoting 
objects that are neither male nor female, take adjectives of the form appropriat- 
ed to nouns denoting the sexes. 

Thus, domlnus, a lord, is naturally masculine, because it denotes a male ; but sermo, 
speech, is grammatically masculine, because, though not indicative of sex, it takes an 
adjective of that form which is appropriated to nouns denoting males. 

6. The grammatical gender of Latin nouns depends either on their significa- 
tion, or on their declension and termination. The following are the general rules 
of gender, in reference to signification. Many exceptions to them, on account 
of termination, occur: these will be specified under the several declensions. 

§ 28. Masculines. 1. Names, proper and appellative, of 
all male beings are masculine ; as, Homerus, Homer ; pater, a 
father ; consul, a consul ; equus, a horse. 

As proper names usually follow the gender of the general name under which they are 
comprehended; hence, 

2. Names of rivers, winds, and months, are masculine, because 
jluvius, ventus, and mensis, are masculine ; as, Tiberis, the Tiber ; 
Aquilo, the north wind ; Aprllis, April. 

Exc. Styx and some names of rivers in a and eare feminine. §§ 62, and 41, 1. 

3. Names of mountains are sometimes masculine, because mons is mascu- 
line ; as, Othrys, a mountain of Thessaly ; but they usually follow the gender 
of their termination ; as, hie* Atlas, haic Ida, hoc Soracte. 

§ 2©. Feminines. 1. Names, proper and appellative, of 
all female beings are feminine ; as, Helena, Helen ; mater, a 
mother ; juvenca, a heifer. 

2. Names of countries, towns, trees, plants, ships, islands, poems, 
and gems, are feminine ; because terra, urbs, arbor, planta, ndvis, in- 
sula, fabula, and gemma, are feminine ; as, 

JEgyptus, Egypt ; Corinthus, Corinth ; pirus, a pear-tree ; nardus, spikenard ; 
Centauries, the ship Centaur; Sd?7ios, the name of an island; Eunuchus, the 
Eunuch, a comedy of Terence ; amethystus, an amethyst. 

Exc. Names of countries and islands in wm, i, and (plur.) a, drum, are neuter. — Names 
of towns in i, drum; four in o, onis, viz. Truslno, Hippo, Narbo, and Sidmo, with Tunes, 
Taras, and Canopus, are masculine. Names of towns in um or on, ?', and (plur.) a, drum ; 
those in e and ur of the third declension, indeclinable nouns in i and y, and some barba- 
rous names, as Suthul, Hispid and Gadir are neuter. — Names of trees and plants in er of 
the third declension, (§ 60), with baccar and robur are neuter. A few names in us, i, (§ 50), 
with oleaster, pinaster, Styrax and unSdo are masculine. — A few names of gems in us, i, 
are also masculine. 

* To distinguish the gender of Latin nouns, grammarians write hie before the mascu- 
line, hcec before the feminine, and hoc before the neuter. 



§ 30-32. 



COMMON AND DOUBTFUL GENDER. 



21 



§ 30. Common and Doubtful Gender. Some words are 
either masculine or feminine. These, if they denote things animate, 
are said to be of the common gender ; if things inanimate, of the 
doubtful gender. 



Of the former are parens, a parent 
end. 



bos, an ox or cow : of the latter, finis, an 



The following nouns are of the common gender :- 



Adolescens, a youth. 
Aff Inis, a relative, by mar- 
riage. 
Ales, a bird. 
Antistes, a chief priest. 
Auctor, an author. 
Augur, an augur. 
Bos, an ox or cow. 
Canis, a dog. 
Civis, a citizen. 
Comes, a companion. 
Conjux, a spouse. 
Consors, a consort. 
Conviva, a guest. 
Custos, a keeper. 
Dux, a leader. 



Exsul, an exile. 
Grus, a crane. 
Hospes, a guest, a host. 
Hostis, an enemy. 
Index, an informer. 
Infans, an infant. 
Interpres, an interpreter. 
Judex, a judge. 
Juvenis, a youth. 
Martyr, a martyr. 
Miles, a soldier. 
Municeps, a burgess. 
Mus, a mouse. 
Nemo, nobody. 
Obses, a hostage. 
Patruelis, a cousin. 



Palumbes, a wood-pigeon. 
Parens, a parent. 
Par, a mate. 
Praeses, a president. 
Praesul, a chief priest. 
Princeps, a prince or 

princess. 
Serpens, a serpent. 
Sacerdos, a priest or 

priestess. 
Satelles, a life-guard. 
Sus, a swine. 
Testis, a witness. 
Vates, a prophet. 
Verna, a slave. 
Vindex, an avenger. 



The following hexameters contain nearly all the above nouns : — 

Conjux, atque parens, princeps, patruelis, et infans, 
Aff inis, vindex, judex, dux, miles, et hostis, 
Augur, et antistes, juvenis, convlva, sacerdos, 
Muni-jue-ceps, vates, adolescens, civis, et auctor, 
Custos, nemo, comes, testis, sus, bbs-que, canis-^ue, 
Pro consorte ttiri par, praesul, verna, satelles, 
Mus-^we obses, consors, interpres, et exsul, et hospes. 

§ 31. 1. When nouns of the common gender denote males, 
they take a masculine adjective ; when they denote females, a fem- 
inine. 

2. The following are either masculine or feminine in sense, but 
masculine only in grammatical construction : — 

Artifex, an artist. Fur, a thief Latro, a robber. 

Auspex, a soothsayer. Heres, an heir. Liberi, children. 

Eques, a horseman. Homo, a man or woman. Pedes, a footman. 

To these may be added personal appellatives of the first declen- 
sion ; as, advena, a stranger ; and some gentile nouns ; as, Persa, a 
Persian. 



§33. 

are feminine only in construction 

Operae, laborers. 

offspring. 



Copige, troops. 
Custodise, guards. 
Excubise, sentinels. 



Proles, 
Suboles, 



Vigil ise, watchmen. 



22 EPICENES. — NEUTERS. — NUMBER. § 33-35. 

2. Some nouns, signifying persons, are neuter, both in their termi- 
nation and construction ; as, 

Acroama, a buffoon. Mancipium, ) ■ . » „ Scortura, ) ... . 

Auxilia, auxiliaries. Servitium, } a slave ' Prostibulum, j a ^stitute. 

3. (a.) In some personal appellatives masculines and feminines 
are distinguished by different terminations affixed to the same root. 
The masculines end in us, er, o, tor, etc. ; the feminines in a or trix; 
as, coquus, coqua ; magister, magistra ; lino, lena ; inventor, inventrix ; 
tibicen, tibicina ; avus, avia ; rex, reglna ; poeta, poetria. 

(b.) So also in some names of animals ; as, equus, equa ; gallus, 
galllna ; leo, lea and learna. Sometimes the words are wholly differ- 
ent ; as, taurus, vacca. 

4. Some names of animals are sometimes masculine and sometimes 
feminine without regard to difference of sex ; as, anguis, serpens, da- 
ma, talpa, tigris, coluber and colubra, etc. 

§ 33. Epicenes. Names of animals which include both sexes, 
but admit of an adjective of one gender only, are called epicene. 
These commonly follow the gender of their terminations. 

Thus, passer, a sparrow, corvus, a raven, are masculine ; aquila, an eagle, wi- 
pes, a fox, are feminine ; though each of them is used to denote both sexes. 

Note. This class includes the names of animals, in which the distinction of sex is 
eeldom attended to. When it is necessary to mark the sex, mas or femina is usually 
added. 

§ 34. Neuters. Nouns which are neither masculine nor 
feminine, are said to be of the neuter gender ; such are, 

1. All indeclinable nouns ; as, fas, nefas, nihil, gummi, pondo. 

2. Names of letters ; as, o longum, long o. But these are some- 
times feminine, litera being understood. 

3. Words used merely as such, without reference to their meaning ; 
as, pater est dissylldbum; pater is dissyllabic. 

4. All infinitives, imperatives, clauses of sentences, adverbs, and 
other particles, used substantively ; as scire tuum, your knowledge ; 
ultimum vale, the last farewell ; hoc diu, this (word) diu. 

Remark. 1. Words derived from the Greek retain the gender which they 
have in that language. 

Rem. 2. Some nouns have different genders in the singular and plural, and 
are called heterogeneous nouns. See § 92. 



NUMBER. 

§ 30. 1. (a.) Number, in nouns, is the form by which they 
denote whether they represent one object or more than one. 

(&.) Latin nouns have two numbers, — the singular and the plural, 
•—which are distinguished by their terminations. The singular num- 
ber denotes one object ; the plural, more than one. 



§ 36-39. PERSON. — CASES. — DECLENSIONS. 23 

PERSON. 

2. The person of a noun or pronoun is the character sustained 
by the object which it represents, as being the speaker, the per- 
son addressed, or the person or thing spoken of. 

Hence there are three persons. The speaker is of the first person, 
the person addressed is of the second person, and the person or thing 
spoken of is of the third person. 

CASES. 

§ 3G. Many of the relations of objects, which, in English, are 
denoted by prepositions, are, in Latin, expressed by a change of ter- 
mination. 

Cases are those terminations of nouns, which denote their re- 
lations to other words. Latin nouns have six cases ; viz. Nomi- 
native, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative. 

Kemaek. Though there are six cases in each number, no noun has in each 
number so many different terminations. 

§ 37. 1. The nominative denotes the relation of a subject to a 
finite verb ; as, ego scribo, I write. Caius dicit, Caius says. 

2. The genitive denotes origin, possession, and many other rela- 
tions, which, in English, are expressed by the preposition of or by 
the possessive case ; as, Vita Cozsdris, the life of Ccesar, or Ccesars 
life. 

3. The dative denotes that to or for which any thing is, or is done ; 
as, Ille mihi librum dedit, He gave the book to me. 

4. The accusative is either the object of an active verb, or of cer- 
tain prepositions, or the subject of an infinitive. 

5. The vocative is the form appropriated to the name of any ob- 
ject which is addressed. 

6. The ablative denotes privation, and many other relations, espe- 
cially those expressed in English by the prepositions with, from, in, 
or by. 

Eemakk. The nominative and vocative are sometimes called casus recti, 
i. e. the uninfected cases ; and the others, casus obllqui ; i. e. the oblique or in- 
flected cases. 

DECLENSIONS. 

§ 38. The regular forming of the several cases in both numbers, 
by annexing the appropriate terminations to the root, is called de- 
clension. 

The Latin language has five declensions or modes of declining 
nouns, distinguished by the termination of the genitive singular, 
which, in the first declension, ends in 02, in the second in i, in the 
third in is, in the fourth in us, and in the fifth in ei 

§ 30* The folio-wing table exhibits a comparative view of the termina- 
tions or case-endings of the five declensions. 






24 



TEKMINATIONS. 



§40. 



am, 
a, 



arum. 

Is, 



n. 



Terminations. 

Singular. 

in. 



M. 



N. 



us, er, urn, 

1 > 

o, 

urn, 
e, er, iim, 

o. 



M. 



N. 



or, etc. e, etc. 

is, 

h 

em,(im), e,etc. 

or, ete. e, etc. 

e, (I.) 

Plural. 



M. 



um, 
us, 



iy. 



us, 



N. 



u, 


es, 




ei, 


u, 


ei, 


H> 


em 


u, 


es, 



I, a, 


es, a, (1a), 


us, ua, 


es, 


oriim, 


um, (ium), 


uum, 


eriim 


is, 


ibiis, 


ibiis, (ubiis), 


ebiis, 


os, a, 


es, a, (ia), 


us, ua, 


es, 


i, a, 


es, a, (ia), 


us, ua, 


es, 


is. 


ibiis. 


ibiis, (iibiis). 


ebiis. 



Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

AM. 



Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

AM. 



Remarks. 

§ 4IO» 1. The terminations of the nominative, in the third declension, 
are very numerous. See §§ 55, 58, 62, 66. 

2. The accusative singular of masculines and feminines, always 
ends in m. 

3. The vocative singular is like the nominative in all Latin nouns, 
except those in us of tne second declension. 

4. The nominative and vocative plural always end alike. 

5. The genitive plural always ends in um. 

6. The dative and ablative plural always end alike ; — in the 1st 
and 2d declensions, in is ; in the 3d, 4th, and 5th, in bus. 

7. The accusative plural of masculines and feminines, always ends 
in s. 

8. Nouns of the neuter gender have the accusative and vocative 
like the nominative, in both numbers ; and these cases, in the plural, 
always end in a. 

9. The 1st and 5th declensions contain no nouns of the neuter gender, and 
the 4th and 5th contain no proper names. 

10. Every inflected word consists of two parts — a root, and a ter- 
mination. The root or crude form, is the part which is not changed 
by inflection. The termination is the part annexed to the root. The 
root of a declined word may be found by removing the termination of 
any of its oblique cases. The case commonly selected for this pur- 
pose is the genitive singular. 

11. The preceding table exhibits terminations only. In the fifth declension, 
the e of the final syllable, though unchanged, is considered as belonging to the 
termination. 



§ 41-43. FIRST DECLENSION. EXCEPTIONS* 25 

FIRST DECLENSION. 

§ 41. Nouns of the first declension end in a, e, as, es. Those 
in a and e are feminine ; those in as and es are masculine. 

Latin nouns of the first declension end only in a. They are thus declined:— 

Singular. Plural. 



Norn, mu'-sa, a muse; 

Gen. mu'-sae, of a muse ; 

Dat. mu'-sae, to a muse; 

Ace. mu'-sam, a muse; 

Voc. mu'-sa, muse ; 

AM. mu'-sa, with a muse. 



Nom. mu'-sae, muses; 

Gen. mu-sa'-rum, of muses ; 

Dat. mu'-sls, to muses ; 

Ace. mu'-sas, muses ; 

Voc. mu'-sae, muses ; 

AM. mu'-sls, with muses. 



In like manner decline 
Au'-la, a hall. Lit'-e-ra, a letter. Sa-git'-ta, an arrow. 

Cu'-ra, care. Lus-cin'-i-a, a nightingale. Stel'-la, a star. 

Ga'-le-a, a helmet. Mach'-i-na, a"machine. T6'-ga, a gown. 

In'-su-la, an island. Pen'-na, a feather, a quill. Vi'-a, a way. 

Note. As the Latin language has no article, appellative nouns may he ren- 
dered either with or without the English articles a, an, or the, according to their 
connection. 

Exceptions" in Gender. 

§ 4/«» 1. Names proper and appellative of men, as, Sulla, Cinna; poeta, 
a poet; nauta, a sailor; and names of rivers, though ending in a, are mascu- 
line: § 28, 1 and 2. But the following names of rivers have been used as femi- 
nine : viz. Albula, Allia, Druentia, Garumna, Himera, Matrdna, Mosella, Trebia. 
Lethe is always feminine. 

Ossa and (Eta, names of mountains, are masculine or feminine. 

2. Hadria, the Adriatic sea, ddma in Virgil and Statius, and talpa in Virgil, 
are masculine. 

Exceptions in Declension. 

§ 413. Genitive singular. 1. The poets sometimes formed the 
genitive singular in ai ; as, aula, gen. aulai. 

2. Familia, after pater, mater, filius, or flia, usually forms its gen- 
itive in as ; as, mater-familias, the mistress of a family ; gen. matris- 
familias ; nom. plur. matres-familias or familiarum. Some other 
words anciently formed their genitive in the same manner. 

Genitive plural. The genitive plural of patronymics in es, of sev- 
eral compounds in cola and gena, and of some names of nations, is 
sometimes, especially in poetry, formed in um instead of arum ; as, 
JEneadum, Coelicolum, terrigenum, Lapithum. So amphorum, drach- 
mum, for amphorarum, drachmarum. 

Dative and Ablative plural. The following nouns have sometimes 
abus instead of is, in the dative and ablative plural, especially when 
it is necessary to distinguish them from the same cases of masculines 
in us of the second declension having the same root ; as, fliis et filia- 
bus, to sons and daughters. 
3 



26 GREEK NOUNS. — SECOND DECLENSION. § 44-46. 

Dea, a goddess. Equa, a mare. 

Filia, a daughter. Mula, a she mule. 

The use of a similar termination in anima, aslna, liberta, nata, conserva, and 
some other words, rests on inferior authority. 



Greek Nouns. 

§ 44L. Nouns of the first declension in e, as, and es, and some 
also in a, are Greek. Greek nouns in a are declined like musa, ex- 
cept that they sometimes have an in the accusative singular; as, 
Ossa; ace. Ossam, or Ossan. 

Greek nouns in e, as, and es, are thus declined in the singular number: — 

JV. Pe-nel'-o-pe, N. iE-ne'-as, N. An-chi'-ses, 

G. Pe-neF-o-pes, G. iE-ne'-se, G. An-chi'-sae, 

D. Pe-nel'-o-pse, D. iE-ne'-se, £>. An-chi'-sse, 

Ac. Pe-neF-o-pen, Ac. iE-ne'-am or an, Ac. An-chl'-sen, 

V. Pe-neF-6-pe, V. M-ne'-a, V. An-chf-se or a, 

Ah. Pe-nel'-o-pe. Ah. iE-ne'-a. Ah. An-chi'-sa or e. 

§ 45. In like manner decline 

Al'-o-e, aloes. Ti-a'-ras, a turhan. 

E-pit'-o-me, an abridgment. Co-me'-tes, a comet. 

TluV-be. Dy-nas'-tes, a ruler. 

Bo'-re-as, the north wind. Pri-am'-i-des, a son of Priam. 

Ml'-das. Py-ri'-tes, a kind of stone. 

1. Most proper names in es, except patronymics, follow the third declension ; 
but in the accusative they often have both em and en, and in the vocative both 
es and e. See §§ 80, iv, and 81. 

2. Greek nouns of the first declension, which admit of a plural, are declined 
in that number like the plural of musa. 

3. The Latins frequently change the terminations of Greek nouns in es and 
e into a; as, Airldes, Atrlda, a son of Atreus; Perses, Persa, a Persian; geo~ 
metres, geometra, a geometrician ; Circe, Circa ; epitdme, epit&ma ; grammatice, 
grammatica, grammar ; rhetorice, rhetoAca, oratory. — So also tiaras, tiara. 

SECOND DECLENSION. 

§ 4G. Nouns of the second declension end in er, ir, us, um, 
os, on. Those ending in um and on are neuter ; the rest are 
masculine. 

Nouns in er, us, and um, are thus declined : — 





Singular. 




A lord. 


A son-in-law. 


A field. 


A kingdom. 


N. dom'-i-nus, 


ge'-ner, 


a'-ger, 


reg'-num, 


G. dom'-i-ni, 


gen'-e-rl, 


a'-gri, 


reg'-ni, 


D. dom'-i-no, 


gen'-e-ro, 


a'-gro, 


reg'-no, 


Ac. dom'-i-num, 


gen'-e-rum, 


a'-grum, 


reg'-num, 


V. dom'-i-ne, 


ge'-ner, 


a'-ger, 


reg'-num, 


Ab. dom'-i-no. 


gen'-ero. 


a'-gro. 


reg'-no. 



§ 47-49. SECOND DECLENSION. EXCEPTIONS. 27 

Plural. 



N. 


dom'-I-ni, 


gen'-e-ri, 


a'-gri, 


reg'-na, 


G. 


dom-i-no'-rum, 


gen-e-ro'-rum, 


a-gro'-rum, 


reg-no'-riim, 


D. 


dom'-i-nls, 


gen'-e-ris, 


a'-gris, 


reg'-nis, 


Ac. 


doin'-I-nos, 


gen'-e-ros, 


a'-gr5s, 


reg'-na, 


V. 


dorn'-I-nl, 


gen'-e-ri, 


a'-gri, 


reg'-na, 


Ab. 


dom'-i-nls. 


gen'-e-ris. 


a'-gris. 


reg'-nis. 



Like dominus decline 

An'-I-mus, the mind. Fo'-cus, a hearth. Nu'-me-rus, a number. 
Clip'-e-us, a shield. Gla'-di-us, a sword. O-ce'-a-nus, the ocean. 
Cor'-vus, a raven. Lu'-cus, a grove. Tro'-chus, a trundling-hoop. 

Note. Nouns in us of the second declension are the only Latin nouns, whose nomina- 
tive and vocative singular differ in form. See § 40, R. 3. 

§ 47. A few nouns in er, like gener, add the terminations to the 
nominative singular, as a root. They are the compounds of gero and 
few ; as, armiger, -eri, an armor-bearer ; Lucifer, -eri, the morning 
star ; and the following : — 

A-duT-ter, an adulterer. Li'-ber, Bacchus. Pu'-er, a boy. 

Cer-ti-ber, a Celliberian. Lib'-e-ri, (plur.), children. S5'-cer, a father-in-law. 
I'-ber, a Spaniard. Pres'-by-ter, an elder. Ves'-per, the evening. 

Mul'-d-ber, Vulcan, sometimes has this form. 

§ 48. 1. All other nouns in er reject the e in adding the termi- 
nations, (§ 322, 4), and are declined like ager ; thus, 

A'-per, a wild boar. Li'-ber, a booh. Al-ex-an'-der. 

Aus'-ter, the south wind. Ma-gis'-ter, a master. Is'-ter. 

Fa'-ber, a workman. On'-a-ger, a wild ass. Teu'-cer. 

2. Vir, a man, with its compounds, and the patrial Trevir, (the only 
nouns in ir,) are declined like gener. 

Like regnum decline 

An'-trum, a cave. Ex-em'-plum, an example. PraB-sid'-i-uru, a defence. 

A'-tri-um, a hall. Ne-go'-ti-um,*- a business. Sax'-um, a rock. 

Bei'-Iuin, war. Ni'-trum, natron. Scep y -trum, a sceptre. 

Exceptions in Gender. 

§ 4:". 1. The following nouns in us and os are feminine: — 

Abyssus, a bottomless pit. Dialectos, a dialect. Miltos, vermilion. 

Alvus, the belly. Diphthongus, a diphthong. Pharus(os), a light-house. 

Antidotus, an antidote. Domus, a house, home. Plinthus, the base of a 

Arctos(us), the Northern Eremus, a desert. column. 

Bear. Humus, the ground. Vannus, a corn-fan. 

Carbasus, a sail. 

2. Greek nouns in 6dus (fj oSog), and metros, are likewise feminine; as, 
syn6dus, an assembly ; diamitros, a diameter. 

* Pronounced ne-go'-she^um. See § 12. 



\. 



28 SECOND DECLENSION. — EXCEPTIONS- § 50-53. 

§ Ovi Names of countries, towns, trees, plants, etc. are feminine. See 
§ 29, 2. 

Yet the following names of plants are masculine : — 

Acanthus, beards-foot. Ebulus, an elder. Rubus, a blaclcberry-bush. 

Amarantus, amaranth. Helleborus, hellebore. Tribulus, a caltrops. 

Asparagus, asparagus. Intubus, endive. 

Calamus, a reed. Juncus, a bidrush. And sometimes 

Carduus, a thistle. Raphanus, a radish. Amaracus, marjoram. 

Dumus, a bramble. Rhamnos, buck-thorn. Cytisus, snail-clover. 

Oleaster and pinaster, names of trees, are also masculine. 

The following names of gems are also masculine : — 

Beryllus, a beryl. Chrysoprasus, chrysoprase. So also, 

Carbunculus, a carbuncle. Opalus, opal. Pyropus, gold-bronze, 

Chrysolithus, chrysolite, and smaragdus, an emerald, are doubtful. 

Names of females in um are feminine : § 29, 1 ; as, mea Glycerium, Ter. 

Names of trees and plants in um are generally neuter ; as, opium, parsley ; 
accmUum, wolf's bane. 

Canopus, Pontus, Hellespontus, Isthmus, and all plural names in i of countries 
and towns are masculine. Abydus(os) is doubtful. 

Names of countries and towns ending in um, or, if plural, in a, are neuter 
as, Ilium or Ilion ; Ecbatdna, orum. 

§ «51. The following are doubtful, but more frequently masculine : — 

Balanus, a date. Grossus, an unripe Jig. Phaselus, a light vessel. 
Barbitos, a lute. Pampinus, a vine-leaf. 

Atdmus, an atom, and cdlus, a distaff, are doubtful, but more frequently femi- 
nine. 

Pelagus, the sea, and virus, poison, are neuter. 

Vulg'us, the common people, is neuter, and rarely masculine. 

Exceptions in Declension. 

§ 5H* Genitive singular. When the genitive singular ends in it, 
the poets frequently contract it into I ; as, ingenx, for ingenii. 

Vocative singular. The vocative of nouns in us is sometimes like 
the nominative, especially in poetry ; as, fluvius, Latinus, in Virgil. 
So, audi tu, populus Albanus. Liv. 

Proper names in ius omit e in the vocative ; as, Horatius, Horati; 
Virgilius, Virgili. 

Filius, a son, and genius, a guardian angel, make also fili and geni. Other 
nouns in ius, including patrials and possessives derived from proper names, 
form their vocative regularly in e; as, Delius, Delit ; Tiryntlnus, Tirynthie; 
Laertius, Laertie. 

§ *53. Genitive plural. The genitive plural of some nouns of 
the second declension, especially of those which denote money, weight 
and measure, is commonly formed in um, instead of drum: § 322, 4. 

Such are particularly nummum, sestertium, denarium, medimnum, jugerum, 
modium, talentum. The same form occurs in other words, especially in poetry; 
as, deum, liberum, Danaum ; etc., and sometimes om is found instead of um ; 
as, Achlvom. Virg. Cf. $ 322, 8. 



§ 54, 55. THIRD DECLENSION. 29 

Deiis, a god } is thus declined : — 



Singular. 




Plural. 


N. de'-us, 


N. 


di'-i, di, or de'-i, 


G. de'-i, 


G. 


de-o'-rum, 


D. de'-o, 


D. 


di'-is, dis, or de'-is 


Ac. de'-um, 


Ac. 


de'-os, 


V. de'-us, 


V. 


di'-i, di, or de'-i, 


Ab. de'-o. 


Ab. 


di'-is, dis, or de'-is. 



Jesus, or Iesus, the name of the Savior, has um in the accusative, and u 
in all the other oblique cases. 

Greek Nouns. 

§ 5£, 1. Os and on, in the second declension, are Greek ter- 
minations, and are commonly changed, in Latin, into us and um ; but 
sometimes both forms are in use ; as, Alpheos, and Alpheus ; Ilion and 
Ilium. Greek names in ros after a consonant commonly change ros 
into er ; as, Alexandros, Alexander; Teucros, Teucer. In a few words 
ros is changed to rus ; as, Codrus, hydrus, and once in Virgil, Teucrus. 

Greek nouns are thus declined in the singular number : — 



Singular. 

2V. De'-15s, Andro'-ge-os, 

G. De'-H, An-dro'-ge-o, or I, 

D. De'-15, An-dro'-ge-o, 

Ac. De'-lon or um, An-dro'-ge-o, or on, 

V. De'-le, An-dro'-ge-6s, 

Ab. De'-lo. An-dro'-ge-o. 



Barbiton, a lyre. 
N. bar'-bi-ton, 
G. bar'-bi-tl, 
D. bar'-bi-to, 
Ac. bar'-bi-ton, 
V. bar'-bi-ton, 
Ab. bar'-bi-to. 



2. The plurals of Greek nouns in os and on are declined like those of dominus 
and regnum ; but the nominative plural of nouns in os sometimes ends in os; 
as, canephorce. 

8. In early writers some nouns in os have a genitive in u (ou); as, Menandru. 
Ter. 

4. A genitive plural in on, instead of drum, occurs in the titles of books and 
in some names of places ; as, Georgicon ; Philenon arce. Sail. 

5. Greek proper names in eus (see § 9, R. 8), are declined like dominus, except 
that the vocative ends in eu ; but sometimes in the genitive, dative, and accu- 
sative also, they retain the Greek form, viz. gen. eds, dat. el (contracted el), 
ace. ed or ed, and are of the third declension. See §§ 86, and 806, (1.) So in 
Lucretius the neuter peldgus (Greek 7riKctyoc, ioc) has an accusative plural 
pelage for pelagea after the third declension. § 83, 1. — See also respecting a geni- 
tive in i of some proper nouns in es, § 73, Rem. — Panthu occurs in Virgil, A. 2, 
822, as the vocative of Panthus. Cf. \ 81. 

THLED DECLENSION. 

§ 55. The number of final letters, in this declension, is 
twelve. Five are vowels — a, e, i, o, y ; and seven are conso- 
nants — c, I, n, r, s, t, x. The number of its final syllables ex- 
ceeds fifty. 

Rem. The following terminations belong exclusively to Greek nouns; viz, 
ma, i, y, an, in, on, yn, er, yr, ys, eus, yx, inx, ynx t and plurals in e. 
8* 



30 THIRD DECLENSION. § 56. 

Mode of declining Nouns of the Third Declension. 

To decline a word properly, in this declension, it is necessary to know its gender, its 
nominative singular, and one of its oblique cases ; since the root of the cases is not al- 
ways found entire and unchanged in the nominative. The case usually selected for this 
purpose is the genitive singular. The formation of the accusative singular, and of the 
nominative, accusative, and vocative plural, depends upon the gender: if it is masculine 
or feminine, these cases have one form ; if neuter, another. 

3 wO« The student should first fix well in his memory the terminations of one 
of these forms. He should next learn the nominative and genitive singular of the word 
which is to be declined. H is be removed from the genitive, the remainder will always be 
the root of the oblique cases, and by annexing their terminations to this root, the word is 
declined; thus, rupes, genitive (found in the dictionary) rupis, root rup, dative rupi,etc. : 
80 ars, gen. artis, root art, dat. arti, etc. ; opus, gen. operis, root oper, dat. operi, etc. 

Rules for Forming the Nominative Singular of the 
Third Declension from the Root. 

I. Roots ending in c, g ; b, m, p ; u, t, d, and some in r, add 5 to 
form the nominative ; as, trabis, trabs ; hiemis, hiems ; gruis, grus. 

Remark 1. T, d and r before s are dropped; as, nepotis, nepos; laudis, laics; 
Jloris, fios. So bovis, bos, drops v. 

Rem. 2. C and g before s form x ; as, vocis, vox ; regis, rex. So vs forms x 
in nivis, nix. Cf. '§§ 3, 2, and 171, 1. 

Rem. 3. Short i in the root before c, b, p, t, is commonly changed to e; as, 
pollicis, pollex; cwlibis, cozlebs; principle, princeps ; comhis, comes. So u is 
changed to e in aucupis, auceps. 

Rem. 4. Short e or 6 before r in neuters is changed to u ; as, generis, genus ; 
tempdris, iempus. 

Rem. 5. Short e before r is changed to i in the masculines cineris, cinis ; 
cucumeris, cucumis ; pulveris, pulvis ; vomeris, vomis. 

Rem. 6. A few and those mostly monosyllabic roots of masculines and fern- 
inines, not increasing in the genitive, add es or is, instead of 5 alone ; as, gen. 
rwpis, nom. rupes ; gen. awris, nom. auris. 

Rem. 7. A few neuters add e to the root to form the nominative ; as, retis, 
rete ; maris, mare. 

II. To roots ending in I and n, to some in r and s, and to those of 
most neuters in t, no addition is made in forming the nominative ; as, 
animalis, animal ; canonis, canon ; honoris, honor ; assis, as. 

Remark 1. Final on and in in the roots of masculines and feminines, become 
o in the nominative ; as, sermonis, sermo ; arundinis, arundo. 

Rem. 2. Final in in the roots of neuters becomes en in the nominative; as, 
jluminis, flumen. So also in the masculines, oscen, pecten, tibicen and tubicen. 

Rem. 3. Tr and br at the end of a root, take e between them in the nomina- 
tive; as, patris, pater; imbris, imber. Cf. §§ 108, 48, and 106. 

Rem. 4. Short 6 is changed to u in e&tfris, ebur ; femdris, femur ; jecdris, j2- 
cur ; and robdris, robur. 

Rem. 5. In the roots of neuters at drops t, and it becomes ut in the nomina- 
tive ; as, poematis, poema ; capitis, caput. 

Rem. 6. Roots of this class ending in repeated consonants drop one of them 
in the nominative ; as, fettis, fel ; farris, far ; assis, as ; bessis, oes. 



§57. 



THIRD 


DECLENSION. 


ie following are the two forms of termination in this declension : — 


Singular. 


Plural 


Masc. and Fern. Neut. 


Masc. and Fern. Neut. 


N. * * 




N. es, a, (ia), 


G. is, is, 




G. urn, (ium), lim, (ium), 


D. I, I, 




D. ibus, Ibus, 


Ac. em, (im), * 




Ac. es, a, (ia), 


v. * * 




V. es, a, (ia), 


Ab. e, (I). e, (I). 




^46. Ibus. ibus. 



31 



The asterisk stands for the nominative, and for those cases which are like it. 
§ 57, The following are examples of the most common forms of 
nouns of this declension, declined through all their cases. 



Honor, honor ; masc. 
Plural. 



Singular. 
N. ho'-nor, 
ho-no'-ris, 
ho-n5'-ri, 
ho-no'-rem, 
ho'-nor, 



G. 
D. 

Ac 
V. 



Ab. ho-no'-re. 



ho-no'-res, 

ho-no -rum, 

ho-nor'-I-bus, 

ho-no'-res, 

ho-no'-res, 

ho-nor'-I-bus. 



Singular. 
N. ru'-pes, 
ru'-pis, 
ru'-pi, 
ru'-pem, 
ru'-pes, 



G. 
D. 
Ac. 
V. 



Rupes, a rock ; fern. 
Plural. 
ru'-pes, 
ru'-pi-um, 
ru'-pi-bus, 
ru'-pes, 
ru'-pes, 
ru'-pi-bus. 



Ab. ru'-pe. 

Ars, art. 
Singular. 
N. ars, 
ar'-tis, 
ar'-ti, 
ar'-tem, 
ars, 
Ab. ar'-te. 



G. 
D. 
Ac. 
V. 



fern. 
Plural 
-tes, 
-ti-um,* 
tl-bus, 
-tes, 
-tes, 
ar' -tl-bus. 



Sermo, speech ; masc. 



Singular. 
N. ser'-mo, 
ser-mo'-nis, 
ser-mo'-ni, 
ser-md'-nem, 
ser'-mo, 
ser-mo'-ne. 



G. 
D. 

Ac. 
V. 

Ab. 



Plural. 
ser-mo'-nes, 
ser-mo'-num, 
ser-mon'-I-bus, 
ser-mo'-nes, 
ser-mo'-nes, 
ser-mon'-I-bus. 



Turris, a tower ; fern. 
Singular. Plural. 

N. tur'-ris, tur'-res, 

G. tur'-ris, tur'-ri-um, 

D. tur'-ri, tur'-ri-bus, 

Ac. tur'-rim, rem, tur'-res, 
V. tur'-ris, tur'-res, 

Ab. tur'-ri, or re. tur'-ri-bus. 

Nox, night; fern. 



Singular. 
N. nox, 
G. noc'-tis, 
D. noc'-ti, 
Ac. noc'-tem, 
X- nox, 
Ab. noc'-te. 



Plural. 
noc'-tes, 
noc'-ti-um,* 
noc'-ti-bus, 
noc'-tes, 
noc'-tes, 
noc'-ti-bus. 



Miles, a soldier ; com. gen. 



Singular. 

N. mi'-les, 

G. mil'-i-tis, 

D. mil'-i-ti, 

Ac. mil'-i-tem, 

V. mi'-les, 

Ab. mil'-I-te. 



Plural. 
mil'-i-tes, 
mil'-I-tum, 
mi-lit'-i-bus, 
mil'-i-tes, 
mil'-i-tes, 
mi-lit'-I-bus. 



Pater, a father ; masc. 



Singular. 
N. pa'-ter, 
G. pa'-tris, 
pa'-tri, 
pa'-trem, 
pa'-ter, 
pa'-tre. 



1). 

Ac 
V. 
Ab 



Plural. 
pa'-tres, 
pa'-trum, 
pat'ri-bus, 
pa'-tres, 
pa'-tres, 
pat'-ri-bus. 



•Pronounced ar'-she-um, noc'-she-um. 



S 12. 



32 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§57. 





Sedile, a seat; neut. 


Virgo, a \ 


nrgin; fern. 


s 


ingular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. 


se-di'-le, 


se-dil'-i-a, 


N. vir'-go, 


vir'-gi-nes, 


G. 


se-di'-lis, 


se-dil'-i-um, 


G. ^dr'-gi-nis, 


vir'-gi-num, 


D. 


se-dl'-li, 


se-dil'-i-bus, 


D. vir'-gi-ni, 


vir-gin'-i-bus, 


Ac. 


se-di'-le, 


se-dil'-i-a, 


Ac. vir'-gi-nem 


vir'-gi-nes, 


V. 


se-di'-le, 


se-dil'-i-a, 


V. vir'-go, 


vir'-gi-nes, 


Ab. 


se-di'-li. 


se-dil'-l-bus. 


Ab. vir'-gi-ne. 


vir-gin'-i-bus. 




Carmen, a verse; neut. 


Animal, an 


animal; neut. 


S 


ingular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. 


car'-men, 


car'-mi-na, 


N. an'-i-mal, 


an-i-ma'-li-a, 


G. 


car'-mi-nis, 


car'-mi-num, 


G. an-i-ma'-lis 


, an-i-ma'-li-um, 


D. 


car'-mi-ni, 


car-min'-i-bus, 


D. an-i-ma'-li, 


an-i-mal'-i-bus : 


Ac. 


car'-men, 


car'-mi-na, 


Ac. an'-i-mal, 


an-i-ma'-li-a, 


V. 


car'-men, 


car'-mi-na, 


V. an'-i-mal, 


an-i-ma'-li-a, 


Ab. 


car'-mi-ne. 


car-min'-i-bus. 


Ab. an-i-ma'-li. 


an-i-mal'-i-bus. 




Iter, a journey ; neut. 


Opus, work ; neut. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. 


i'-ter, 


i-tin'-e-ra, 


N. o'-pus, 


op'-e-ra, 


G. 


i-tin'-e-ris, 


i-tin'-e-rum, 


G. op'-e-ris, 


op'e-rum, 


D. 


i-tin'-e-ri, 


it-i-ner'-i-bus, 


D. op'-e-ri, 


o-per'-i-bus, 


Ac. 


i'-ter, 


i-tin'-e-ra, 


Ac. o'-pus, 


op'-e-ra, 


V. 


i'-ter, 


i-tin'-e-ra, 


V. o'-pus, 


op'-e-ra, 


Ab. 


i-tin'-e-re. 


it-i-ner'-i-bus. 


Ab. op'-e-re. 


o-per'-i-bus. 




Lapis, a stone ; masc. • 


Caput, a 


head; neut. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. 


la'-pis, 


lap'-i-des, . 


N. ca'-put, 


cap'-i-ta, 


G. 


lap'-l-dis, 


lap'-i-dum, 


G. cap'-i-tis, 


cap'-i-tum, 


D. 


lap'-I-di, 


la-pid'-l-bus, 


D. cap'-i-ti, 


ca-pit'-i-bus, 


Ac. 


lap'-i-dem, 


lap'-i-des, 


Ac. ca'-put, 


cap'-i-ta, 


V. 


la'-pis, 


lap'-i-des, 


V. ca'-put, 


cap'-i-ta, 


Ab. 


lap'-i-de. 


la-pid'i-bus. 
Poema, a } 


Ab. cap'-i-te. 
loem; neut. 


ca-pit'-i-bus. 




Singi 


dar. 


Plural- 






N. po- 


e'-ma, p( 


)-em'-a-ta, 






G. po- 


em'-a-tis, p< 


)-em'-a-tum, 






D. po- 


em'-a-ti, p 


3-e-mat'-i-bus, or 


po-em'-a-tis, 




Ac. po- 


e'-ma, p 


o-em'-a-ta, 






V. po- 


e'-ma, p 


a-em'-a-ta, 






Ab. po- 


em'-a-te. p 


o-e-mat'-i-bus, or 


po-em'-a-tis. 



§ 58-61. THIRD DECLENSION. — GENDER. S3 

RULES FOR THE GENDER OF NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

§ 58. Nouns whose gender is determined by their signification, accord- 
ing to the general rules, § 28 — 34, are not included in the following rules and 
exceptions. 

MASCULINES. 

Nouns ending in o, er, or, es increasing in the genitive, os, and 

n, are masculine; as, 

sermo, speech ; ddlor, pain ; fos, a flower ; career, a prison ; pes, a foot ; 
canon, a rule. 

Exceptions in O. 

§ 50, 1. Abstract and collective nouns in io are feminine; as, 
ratio, reason ; legio, a legion. 

Rem. 1. But numerals in io; as, binio, trinio, etc., except unio, unity, are 
masculine. 

2. Nouns in do and go, of more than two syllables, are feminine ; 
as, arundo, a reed; imago, an image. So also grando, hail. But 
comedo, a glutton ; unedo, the arbute tree ; and harpdgo, a grappling- 
hook, are masculine. 

Rem. 2. Margo, the brink of a river, is doubtful. Cupldo, desire, is often 
masculine in poetry, but in prose is always feminine. 

3. Cdro, flesh, and Greek nouns in o, are feminine ; as, echo, an echo. Bubo, 
the owl, is once feminine, Virg. A. 4, 462. 

Exceptions in ER. 

§ WW. 1. Laver, a water plant, and tuber, the tuber tree, are feminine, 
but when the latter denotes the fruit, it is masculine. Linter, a boat, is femi- 
nine, and once, in Tibullus, masculine. Stser, skirret, is neuter in the singu- 
lar, but masculine in the plural. 

2. The following, in er, are neuter : — 

Acer, a maple-tree. Papaver, a poppy. Tuber, a swelling. 

Cadaver, a dead body. Piper, pepper. Uber, a teat. 

Cicer, o vetch. Slier, an osier. Ver, the sjyring. 

Iter, a journey. Spinther, a clasp. Verber, a scourge. 

Laser, assafoztida. Suber, a cork-tree. Zingiber, ginger. 

Exceptions in OR. 

§ ©I. Arbor, a tree, is feminine: ddor, spelt; aquor, the sea; martnor, 
marble ; and cor, the heart, are neuter. 

Exceptions in ES increasing in the genitive. 

1 . The following are feminine : — 

Compes, a fetter. Quies, and Requies, rest. Teges, a mat. 

Merces, a reward. Inquies, restlessness. 

Merges, a sheaf of corn. Seges, growing corn. 

2. Ales, a bird; cdmes, a companion; hospes, a guest; interpres, an inter- 

Ereter; miles, a soldier; obses, a hostage; praises, a president; and satelles, a 
fe-guard, are common, § 30. uEs, brass, is neuter. 



34 THIRD DECLENSION. GENDER. § 62, 63. 

Exceptions in OS. 

3. Arbos, a tree; cos, a whetstone; 'dos, a dowry; eos, the morning; and 
rarely nepos, a grandchild, are feminine: sacerdos, custos, and bos are common, 
§ 30 : 05, the mouth, and os, a bone, are neuter ; as are also the Greek words 
epos, epic poetry ; and melos, melody. 

Exceptions in N. 

4. Nouns in men with four in n are neuter — gluten, glue ; inguen, the groin ; 
pollen, fine flour; and unguen, ointment. 

6. Four nouns in on are feminine — aedon, a nightingale ; halcyon, a king- 
fisher; icon, am image; and sindon, muslin. 

FEMININES. 

§ OS. Nouns ending in as, es not increasing in the geni- 
tive, is, ys, aus, s preceded by a consonant, and x, are feminine ; 
as, 

cetas, age; nubes, a cloud; avis, a bird; chldmys, a cloak; laus, praise; trabs, 
a beam ; pax, peace. 

Exceptions in AS. 

1. Mas, a male, vas, a surety, and as, a piece of money, or any unit divisi- 
ble into twelve parts, are masculine. Greek nouns in as, antis, are also mascu- 
line ; as, addmas, adamant. So also Melas, the name of a river, § 28, 2. Areas 
and Ndmas are common. — 2. Vas, a vessel, the indeclinable nouns, fas and 
nefas, and Greek nouns in as, alls, are neuter ; as, artocreas, a meat-pie ; buce- 
ras, a species of herb. 

Exceptions in ES not increasing in the genitive. 

3. Acindces, a scimitar, and coles or colis, a stalk, are masculine. Antistes, 
palumbes, vales, and vepres, are masculine or feminine. Cacocthes, hippomdnes, 
nepenthes, and pandces, Greek words, are neuter. 

Exceptions in IS. 
§ {?«$. 1. Latin nouns in nis are masculine or doubtful. 

(1.) Masc. Crinis, hair; ignis, fire; panis, bread; manes, (plur.), departed 
spirits. — (2.) Masc. or fern. Amnis, a river; cinis, ashes ; finis, an end; clunis, 
the haunch; cdnis, a dog; funis, a rope. The plurals, cineres, the ashes of the 
dead, and fines, boundaries, are always masculine. 

2. The following are common or doubtful : — 

Anguis, a snake. Corbis, a basket. Tigris, a tiger. 

Caliis, a path. Pollis, fne four. Torquis, a chain. 

Canalis, a conduit pipe. Pulvis, dust. 

Contubernalis, a comrade. Scrobis, a ditch. 

3. The following are masculine : — 

Axis, an axle. Cenchris, a serpent. Follis, a pair of bellows. 

Aqualis, a water-pot. Collis, a hill. Fustis, a club. 

Cassis, a net. Cucumis, a cucumber. Glis, a dormouse. 

Caulis, or ) . ■» Ensis, a sword. Lapis, a stone. 

Colis, } ' Fascis, a bundle. Lemiires, pi., spectres. 



64, 65. THIRD DECLENSION. — GENDER. 35 

Mensis, a month. Sanguis, blood. Sentis, a brier. 

Sodalis, a companion. 



Mugilis, a mullet. Semis, or 

Orbis, a circle. Semissis, 

Piscis, a Jish. Bessis, 

Postis, a post. Centussis, 

Quiris, a Roman. Decussis, 

Samnis, a Samnite. Tressis, 



Tonus, a fvcbrand. 
compounds Unguis, a nail. 

of as. Vectis, a lever. 

Vermis, a troi-m. 
Vomis, a ploughshare. 



4. Names of male beings, rivers, and months in is are masculine ; 
as, Dis, Pluto ; Anubis, an Egyptian deity ; Tigris, the river Tigris ; 
AprUis, April. See § 28. 

Exceptions in YS. 

Names of rivers and mountains in ys are masculine ; as, Hdlys, Othrys. See 
§ 28, 2 and 3. 

Exceptions in S preceded by a consonant. 

§ o4. 1. Deris, a tooth ; fons, a fountain ; mons, a mountain; and pons, 
abridge, are masculine. So also are auceps, a bird-catcher; chdlybs, steel; 
cliens, a client ; ellops, a kind of fish ; epops, a hoopoe ; gryps, a griffin ; hydrops, 
the dropsy ; merops, a kind of bird. Mudens, a rope, is masculine and very 
rarely feminine. 

2. The following nouns also are masculine, viz. {a.) these which are properly 
adjectives — confluens and torrens, scil. amnis ; occidens and oriens, scil. sol ; 
(b.) compounds of dens — tridens, a trident, and bidens, a two-pronged mattock ; — 
but bidens, a sheep, is feminine; (c.) the parts of as ending in ns ; as, sextans, 
quadrans, triens, dodrans, and dextans. 

3. The following are common or doubtful : — 

Adeps, grease. Seps, a hind of serpent. Serpens, a serpent. 
Forceps, pincers. Scrobs, a ditch. Stirps, the trunk of a tree. 

Animans an animal, which is properly an adjective, is masculine, feminine, 
or neuter. 

Exceptions in X. 

§ G«>. 1. AX. Anthrax, cinnabar; cdrax, a raven; cordax, a kind of 
dance; dropax, an ointment; styrax, a kind of tree; thorax, a breast-plate; and 
Atax, the river Aude, are masculine ; Umax, a snail, is common. 

2. EX. Nouns in ex are masculine, except fcex, forfex, lex, nex, prex, 
(obsolete in nom. and gen. sing.), and supellex, which are feminine; to which 
add (§ 29) cdrex, Ilex, murex, pellex, and vltex. Atriplex is neuter and very 
rarely masculine or feminine. Alex, a fish-pickle; cortex, bark; imbrex, a gut- 
ter-tile; Obex, a bolt; and sllex, a flint, are doubtful: senex, an old person; 
grex, a herd; rumex, sorrel; and pumex, pumice-stone, are masculine and. 
very rarely feminine. 

8*. IX. (Mix, a cup ; fornix, an arch ; phoznix, a kind of bird ; and spadix, 
a palm-branch, are masculine : larix, the larch-tree ; perdix, a partridge ; and 
rdi-ix, a swollen vein, are masculine or feminine. 

4. OX. Box and esox, names of fishes, are masculine. 

5. UX. Trddux, a vine-branch, is masculine. 

6. YX. Bombyx, a silk-worm; calyx, the bud of a flower; coccyx, a cuckoo; 
dryx, a wild goat, and names of mountains in yx, as Eryx, are masculine. 
Onyx, a box made of the onyx-stone, and sardonyx, a precious stone ; also, 
calx, the heel, and calx, lime ; lynx, a lynx, and sandyx, a kind of color, are 
masculine or feminine. 

Note. Bombyx, when it signifies silk, is doubtful. 

7. Quincunx, septunx, decunx, deunx, parte of as, are masculine. 



36 THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. § 66-69. 

NEUTERS. 

§ 06. Nouns ending in a, e, i, y, c, I, t, ar, ur, us, and men, 

are neuter ; as, 

diadima, a crown ; rete, a net ; hydromeli, mead ; lac, milk ; vectlgal, revenue ; 
caput, the head; calcar, a spur; guttur, the throat; pectus, the breast; and flu- 



men, a river. 

Exceptions in L, C, and E. 

Mfigil, a mullet, and sol, the sun, are masculine. Sal, salt, is masculine or neuter, 
in the singular ; but, in the plural, it is always masculine. Lac is neuter and rarely 
masculine. Praneste is neuter, and once in Yirgil feminine. 

Exceptions in AR and UR. 

§ 6 € • Furfur, bran ; solar, a trout ; turtur, a turtle dove ; and vultur, a 
vulture, are masculine. 

Exceptions in US. 

1. Lepus, a hare; and Greek nouns in pus (novc), are masculine; as, tripus, 
a tripod ; but lagopus, a kind of bird, is feminine. 

2. Nouns in us, having utis, or udis, in the genitive, are feminine ; 
as, juventus, youth ; incus, an anvil. 

3. Pecus, -udis, a brute animal, and tellus, the earth, are feminine. Pessinus, 
and Sellnus, names of towns, are also feminine. See § 29. 

4. Grus, a crane ; mus, a mouse ; and sus, a swine, are masculine or feminine. 

5. Mhus, sumach, is masculine, and rarely feminine. 

Rules for the Oblique Cases of Nouns of the Third 
Declension. 

GENITIVE SINGULAR. 

§ G8. 1. The genitive singular of the third declension of Latin 
nouns always ends in is, in Greek nouns it sometimes ends in os 
and us. 

A. 

2. Nouns in a form their genitive in atis; as, di-a-de-ma, di-a- 
dem'-a-tis, a crown ; dog-ma, dog'-ma-tis, an opinion. 

E. 

3. Nouns in e change e into is ; as, re-te, re-tis, a net ; se-dl'-le, 
se-di-lis, a seat. 



4. Nouns in t are of Greek origin, and are generally indeclinable ; but hy- 
drom'-e-li, mead, has hyd-ro-meV-i-tis in the genitive. 

o. 

§ 60. Nouns in o form their genitive in onis ; as, ser'-mo, ser- 
mo'-nis, speech ; pa-vo, pa-vo-nis, a peacock. 



§ 70, 71. THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 37 

Remark. Patrials in o have dnis; as, Macedo, -dnis ; but some have 6nis; 
as, Eburones, etc. See 3d exception to increments in 0, § 287. 

Exc. 1. Nouns in do and go form their genitive in inis ; as, a-run- 
do, a-run'-di-nis, a reed ; i-ma-go, i-mag'-i-nis, an image. 

But four dissyllables — cudo, udo, ligo and mango; and three trisyllables— 
comedo, unedo, and harpdgo, have dnis. 

Exc. 2. The following nouns, also, have inis: — Apollo; hdmo, a man; nemo, 
nobody ; and turbo, a whirlwind. 

Cdro, flesh, has, bv syncope, carnis. Anio, the name of a river, has Anienis; 
Nemo, the wife of Mars, Nerienis ; from the old nominatives, Anien, and iVe- 
rienes. 

Exc. 3. Some Greek nouns in o form their genitive in us, and their other 
cases singular, in o ; as, Dido, gen. Didus, dat. Dido, etc. ; Argo, -us ; but they 
are sometimes declined regularly ; as, Dido, Didonis, 



Greek nouns in y have their genitive in yos ; as, misy, misyos, or, by contrac- 
tion, misys. 

c. 

§ 0« The only nouns in c are a'-Uc, oAtf-cis, fish-brine, and lac, lacS- 
tis, milk. 

L. N. R. 

Nouns in I, n, and r, form their genitive by adding is ; as, consul, 
con'-su-lis, a consul ; ca-non, cari-6-nis, a rule ; ho -nor, ho-no-ris, 
honor. 

So, An'-I-mal, an-i-ma'-lis, an animal, CaT-car, cal-ca'-ris, a spur. 

"VT-gil, vig'-i-lis, a watchman. Car'-cer, car / -ce-ris, a prison. 

Ti'-tan, Ti-ta'-nis, Titan. A'-mor, a-mo'-ris, love. 

Si'-ren, Si-re'-nis, a Siren. Gut'-tur, guf-tii-ris, the throat. 

Del'-phin, del-phi'-nis, a dolphin. MarMyr, marMy-ris, a martyr. 

Exceptions in L. 
Fel, gall, and mel, honey, double I before is, making fellis and mellis. 

Exceptions in N. 

§ 71. 1. Neuters in en form their genitive in mis ; as, flu -men, 
flu'-mi-nis, a river; glu-ten, glu'-ti-nis, glue. 

The following masculines, also, form their genitive in inis :—oscen, a bird which fore- 
boded by its notes ; pecten, a comb j tibicen, a piper; and tubicen, a trumpeter. 

2. Some Greek nouns in on form their genitive in ontis; as, Laomedon, Lao- 
medontis. Some in In and yn add is or os; as, Trdchin, or Trachyn, Trachlnis 
or Trachynos. 

Exceptions in R. 

1. Nouns in ter drop e in the genitive ; as, pa-ter, pa'-tris, a father. 
So also imber, a shower, and names of months in ber ; as, October, 
Octobris. 



38 THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. § 72-74. 

But crater, a cup; soter, a savior; and later, a brick, retain e in the gen- 
itive. 

2. Far, a kind of corn, has f arris ; hepar, the liver, hepdtzs ; Lar or Isirs, 
Lartis ; iter, a journey, has itineris from the old nominative itiner ; Jupiter, 
Jovis ; and cor, the heart, cordis. 

3. These four in ur have dris in the genitive : — ebur, ivory; femur, the thigh; 
jecur, the liver; robur, strength. 

Femur has also feminis, and jecur, jecindris, and jocindris. 

AS. 

§ T2, Nouns in as form their genitive in atis ; as, m'-tas, ce-ta- 
tis, age ; pi'-e-tas, pi-e-ta-tis, piety. 

Exc. 1. As has assis ; mas, a male, maris; vas, a surety, vast's ; and wis, a 
vessel, vdsis. Anas, a duck, has andtis. 

Exc. 2. Greek nouns in as form their genitive according to their gender; 
the masculines in antis, the feminines in ddis or ados, and the neuters in atis ; 
as, addmas, -antis, adamant ; lampas, -ddis, a lamp ; Pallas, -ddis or -ados ; buce- 
ras, -atis, a species of herb. Areas, an Arcadian, and Nomas, a Numidian, 
which are of the common gender, form their genitive in ddis. Melas, the name 
of a river, has Meldnis. 

ES. 

§ 73. 1. Nouns in es form their genitive by changing es into is, 
itis, etis, or etis ; as, ru-pes, ru'-pis, a rock ; ml'-les, mil'-i-tis, a soldier ; 
se-ges, seg'-e-tis, growing corn ; qui'-es, qui-e-tis, rest. 

Remark. A few Greek proper names in es (gen. is) sometimes form their 
genitive in ei, or, by contraction, i, after the second declension ; as, Achilles, is, 
ei or -i : and a few in ce after the first declension ; as, Orestes, is or ce. 

2. Those which make itis are, 

Ales, a bird. Gurges, a whirlpool. Poples, the ham. 

Ames, a fowler's staff. Hospes, a guest. Satelles, a lifeguard. 

Antistes, a priest. Limes, a limit. Stipes, the stoc% of a tree. 

Csespes, a turf. Merges, a sheaf of corn. Termes, an olive bough. 

Comes, a companion. Miles, a soldier. Trames, a by-path. 

Eques, a horseman. Palmes, a vine-branch. Veles, a skirmisher. 

Fomes, touchwood. Pedes, a foot-soldier. 

3. The following have etis : — abies, a fir-tree ; aries, a ram ; indiges, a man 
deified; interpres, an interpreter; paries, a wall; seges, a corn-field; and teges, 
a mat. 

4. The following have etis: — Cebes; Ores, a, Cretan; lebes, a caldron; mag- 
nes, a loadstone; quies and requies, rest ; inquies, restlessness; and tapes (used 
only in ace. and abl.), tapestry. — Some Greek proper names have either etis or 
is in the genitive ; as, Chremes, -etis, or -is. Dares, -etis, or -is. 

Exc. 1. Obses, a hostage, and presses, a president, have idis. Seres, an heir, 
and merces, a reward, have edis ; pes, a foot, and its compounds, have edis. 
Exc. 2. Ceres has Cereris ; bes, bessis ; proes, prmdis ; and ces, ceris. 

IS. 

§ 74U Nouns in is have their genitive the same as the nomina- 
tive ; as, au'-ris, au'-ris, the ear ; a -vis, a -vis, a bird. 



§ 75, 76. THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 89 

Exc. 1. The following have the genitive in eris: — ctnis, ashes; pulvis, dust; 
vomis or vomer, a ploughshare. Guc&mfa, a cucumber, has eris and rarely is. 

Exc. 2. The following have idis : — capis, a cup; cassis, a helmet; cuspis, a 
point; hipis, a stone; and prOnudsis, an antepast. 

Exc. 3. Two have inis -.—pollis, fine flour, and sanguis or sanguen, blood. 

Exc. 4. Four have itis:—Dis, Pluto; Us, strife; Quirts, a Eoman; and 
Samnis, a Samnite. 

Exc. 5. Glis, a dormouse, has gllris. 

GREEK NOUNS. 

1. Greek nouns in is, whose genitive ends in ios or eos, {toe or w>c), form their genitive 
in Latin in is; as (a.) verbals in sis ; as, basis, mathesis, etc. (b. ) compounds of polis 
(7roKtc); as, metropolis, Neapdlis, etc. ; and (c.) a few other proper names, as Charybdis, 
LachSsis, Syrtis, etc. In some nouns of this class the Greek genitive is sometimes found ; 
as, Nemesis, Nemesios. 

2. Greek nouns in is, whose Greek genitive is in tdos (/Je? ), form their Latin genitive 
in Idis; as, cegis, aspis, ephemSris, pyramis, tyrannis, JEnSis, Iris, NerSis, etc. Tigris 
has both is and Idis ; and in some other words of this class later writers use is instead 
of idis. 

3. Chans has Charltis ; Salamis, Salamlnis, and SimSis, Simoentis. 

OS. 

§ 7t>. Nouns in 6s form their genitive in oris or dtis ; as, flos^ 
flo-ris, a flower ; ne-pos, ne-po-tis, a grandchild. 

The following have oris : — 

Flos, a flower. Labos or labor, labor. Os, the mouth. 

Glos, a husband's sister. Lepos or lepor, wit. Eos, dew. 

Honos or honor, honor. Mos, a custom. 
Arbos or arbor, a tree, has dris. 
The following have dtis : — 

Cos, a whetstone. Monoceros, a unicorn. Nepos, a grandchild. 

Dos, a dowry. EhinocSros, a rhinoceros. Sacerdos, a priest. 

Exc. 1. Gustos, a keeper, has custodis ; bos, an ox, bdvis ; and 6s, a bone, ossis. 

Exc. 2. Some Greek nouns in os have oh in the genitive; as, heros, a hero; 
Minos; Tros, a Trojan; and some Greek neuters in os are used in the third 
declension in the nominative and accusative only; as, Argos, citos, epos, melos. 

US. 

§ 7G. 1. Nouns in its form their genitive in eris or oris ; as, ge- 
nus, gen-e-ris, a kind; tern -pus, tem'-pS-ris, time. 

2. Those which make eris are, acus, (chaff), Jcsdus, funus, (firms, gldmus, la- 
tus, munus, 6lus, dnus, 6pus, pondus, rudus, scelus, sidus, ulcus, vellus, viscus and 
vulnus. In early writers /«'f/w«s has sometimes pigneris. 

3. Those which make dris are, corpus, decus, dedecus, /acinus, fenus, frigus, 
lepus, lltus, nemos, pectus, peats, penus, pi gnus, stertus r tempus, and tergus. 

Exc. 1. These three in us have udis : — mens, an anvil ; pdlus, a morass ; and 
subscus, a dove-tail. Peius, a brute animal, has pecudis. 

Exc. 2. These five have utis .-—juvenilis, youth; sdlus, safety; seneclus, old 
age; servitus, slavery; virtus, virtue. 



40 THIED DECLENSION. — GENITIVE. § 77, 78. 

Exc. 8. Monosyllables in us have uris ; as, crus, the leg ; jus, right ; jus, broth ; 
mus, a mouse ; pus, matter ; rus, the country ; tus, frankincense ; except gru&, 
and sus, which have gruis, and suis ; and rhus, which has rhois or rods. Tellus, 
the earth, has telliris ; and Ligus or Ligur, a Ligurian, has Liguris. 

Exc. 4. Fraus, fraud, and tows, praise, have fraudis, laudis. 

Exc. 5. Greek nouns in pus (7roi/c) have ddis ; as, *r^««, tripddis, a tripod; 
CEdipus, -ddis; but this is sometimes of the second declension. 

Exc. 6. Some Greek names of cities in us have untis ; as, Amdthus, Amathun- 
Us. So Trapezus, Opus, Pessinus, and Sellnus. 

Exc. 7. Greek nouns ending in eus are all proper names, and have their 
genitive in eos ; as, Orpheus^ -eos. But these nouns are found also in the second 
declension; as, Orpheus, -ei or-z. Cf. § 64, 5. 

YS. 

§ 77. 1. Nouns in ys are Greek, and make their genitive in 
pis (contracted ys), or, as in Greek, yos (W) ; as, 

C6tys, gen. Cotyis or Cotys ; Tethys, -4/is or yos. So Atys, Cdpys, Erinnys, 
Edlys, Othrys. A few have $dis ; as, chldmys, chlampdis. 

S preceded by a consonant. 

2. Nouns in s, with a consonant before it, form their genitive by 
changing s into is or ft"s ; as, trabs, trd'-bis, a beam ; M'-ems, hi'-e-mis, 
•winter ; pars, par'-tis, a part ; frons, fron-tis, the forehead. 

(1.) Those in bs, ms, and ps ; as, scrobs, Mems, stirps, change s into is ; except 
gryps, a griffin, which has gryphis. 

Remark. Compounds in ceps from capio have ipis ; as, princeps, prindpis, 
a prince. But auceps has aucupis. 

(2.) Those in Is, ns, and rs, as, puis, gens, ars, change s into tis. 

Exc. 1. The following in ns change s into dis .•—frons, foliage : glans, an 
acorn; juglans, a walnut; lens, a nit; and libripens, a weigher. 

Exc. 2. Tlryns, a town of Argolis, has Tirynthis in the genitive. 

T. 

§ T8. 1. Nouns in t form their genitive in itis. They are, capttf, 
the head, gen. cap-X-tis ; and its compounds, occiput and sinciput. 



2. Nouns in a: form their genitive by resolving x into cs or #s, and 
inserting i before s ; as, vox (vocs) vo-cis, the voice ; lex (legs) le-gis, 
a law. 

(1.) Latin nouns in ax have ads; as, fornax, forndds, except fax, fads. 
Most Greek nouns in ax have ads ; as, thorax, thordds ; a few have ads ; as, 
cdraa;, cordds ; and Greek names of men in nax have nactis ; as, Astydnax, 
Astyanactis. 

(2.) Nouns in ex have ids; as, judex, judicis : 6bex has o&iWs or objids ; and 
ttfiea:, viblds. Nex, prex, (nom. ods.), resex and fenisex have ecis ; dZex, nar- 
ihex, and verrea; have ids, and y«a;, feds. Lex and rex have eyts ; aquilex 
and ^rea; have e^'s ; remex has remigis ; senex, sSnis ; and supellex, supellecUlis. 



§ 79, 80. THIRD DECLENSION. DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 41 

(3.) Nouns in ix have ids; as, cervix, cervieis; and less frequently Ids; as, 
cdlix, calicis. But nix has nivis; strix, foreign names of men, and gentile nouns 
in rix have igis ; as, Bitiirix, Dumndrix, etc. 

(4.) Nouns in ox have dels; as, vox, vdcis; hut Cappddox has Cappaddcis; 
Alldbrox, Allobrdgis ; and nox, noctis. 

(5.) Of nouns in ux, crux, dux, tradux, and nux have was; ?«# and Pollux, 
ucis. — Conjux has conjugis, frux (nom. obs.) frugis, and faux, faucis. 

(6.) Yx, a Greek termination, has yds, yds, or ygis, ygis. Onyx and sar- 
ddnyx, in which a; is equivalent to c/«s (§ 3, 2) have ychis; as, d/i^z, onychis. 

DATIVE SINGULAR. 
§ Td. The dative singular ends in i ; as, sermo, dat. sermoni. 

Anciently it also ended in e ; as, morte ddtus. Varro in Gellius. So cere for 
cen, Cic. and Liv. ; and jure for juri. Liv. 

ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

(a.) The accusative singular of all neuter nouns is like the nomi- 
native. 

(6.) The accusative singular of masculines and feminines, ends in 
em. Yet some Latin nouns in is, which do not increase in the geni- 
tive, have im, and some Greek nouns have im, in, or a. 

1. Many proper names in is, denoting places, rivers, or gods, have the accus- 
ative singular in im ; as, Hispdlis, Tiberis, Anubis ; so also Albis, Athesis, Bcetis, 
Arar or Ardris, Bilbilis, Aj)is, Osiris, Syrtis, etc. These sometimes, also, make 
the accusative in in; as, Albin. Scaldis has in And em, and Llris, im, in, and em. 
Liger has Ligerim. 

2. The following also have the accusative in im : — 

Amussis, a mason's rule. Mephitis, foul air. Sinapis, mustard. 

Buris, a plough-tail. Pelvis, a basin. Sitis, thirst. 

Cannabis, hemp. Bavis, hoarseness. Tussis, a cough. 

Cuciimis, (gen. -is), a cucumber. Securis, an axe. Vis, strength. 

3. These have im, and sometimes em : — 

Febris, a fever. Puppis, Hie stern. Bestis, a rope. Turris, a tower. 
But these have em, and rarely im : — 

Bipennis, a battle-axe. Navis, a ship. Sementis, a sowing. 

Clavis, a key. Prsesepis, a stall. StrigUis, a flesh-brush,. 

Messis, a harvest. 

4. Lens and pars have rarely lentim and partim ; and crdtim from crates, is 
found in Plautus. 

6. Early writers formed the accusative of some other nouns in im. 

Accusative of Greek Nouns. 

§ 80. The accusative singular of masculine and feminine Greek 
nouns sometimes retains the Greek terminations in and a, but often 
ends, as in Latin, in em or im. 

I. Masculine and feminine Greek nouns, whose genitive increases in is or os, 
impure, that is, with a consonant going before, have their accusative in em or a; 
as, lampas, lampddis (Greek -cTsc), lampada; chldmys, chlamydia, chlamydem, or 
•yda; Helicon, Heliconis, Helicona. 
4* 



42 THIRD DECLENSION. VOCATIVE AND ABLATIVE. § 81, 82. 

Remark. In like manner these three, which have is pure in the genitive — 
Tros, Trots, Trdem, and Troa, a Trojan; heros, a hero; and Minos, a king of 
Crete. — Acr, the air ; cether, the sky ; delpMn, a dolphin ; and pman, a hymn, 
have usually a; as, aera, cethera, delphma, pceana. Pan, a god, has only a. 

Exc. 1. Masculines in is, whose genitive increases in is or os impure, have 
their accusative in im or in; sometimes in idem; Paris, Paridis; Parim, or 
Paridem. 

Exc. 2. Feminines in is, increasing impurely in the genitive, though they 
usually follow the rule, have sometimes im or in ; as, Mis, Elidis ; Elin or EU- 
dem. So tigris, gen. is or idis ; ace. tigrim or tigrin. 

II. Masculine and feminine Greek nouns in is not increasing, and in ys, gen. 
yos, form their accusative by changing the s of the nominative into m or n ; as, 
Charybdis, (gen. Lat. -ts, Gr. uec), ace. Charybdim or -in ; Halys, -yis or -yos, 
Halym or -yn. So rhus, gen. rhois, has rhun or rhum. 

JR. Proper names ending in the diphthong eus, gen. ei and eos, have the ac- 
cusative in ea; as, Theseus, Thesea; Tydeus, Tydea. See § 54, 5. 

IV. Some Greek proper names in es, whose genitive is in is, have in Latin, 
along with the accusative in em, the termination en, as if of the first declension; 
as, Achilles, Achillen; Xerxes, Xerxen; Sophocles, Sophdclen. Cf. § 45, 1. Some 
also, which have either etis or is in the genitive, have, besides Stem, eta, or em, 
the termination en; as, Chr ernes, T hales. 

VOCATIVE SINGULAR. 
§ 81. The vocative is like the nominative. 

Remark. Many Greek nouns, however, particularly proper names, drop s of the 
nominative to form the vocative; as, Daphnis, Daphni; Tethys, Tethy ; Melampus, 
Melampu; Orpheus, Orpheu. Proper names in es (gen. is) sometimes have a vocative 
in 8, after the first declension; as, Socrates, Socrate. § 45, 1. 

ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 

§ 82. The ablative singular commonly ends in e. 

Exc. 1. (a.) Neuters in e, al, and ar, have the ablative in i; as, 
sedlle, sedili ; animal, animali ; calcar, calcari. 

(b.) But names of towns in e, and the following neuters in ar, have e in the 
ablative ; Tiz. baccar, an herb ; far, corn ; hepar, the liver ; jubar, a sunbeam ; 
nectar, nectar; par, a pair; sal, salt. Bete, a net, has either e or i; and mare, 
the sea, has sometimes in poetry mare in the ablative. 

Exc. 2. (a.) Nouns which have im alone, or both im and in in the 
accusative, and names of months in er or is, have i in the ablative ; 
as, vis, vim, vi; Tiberis, -im, i ; December, Decembri ; Aprllis, Aprili. 

(b.) But Bmtis, cannabis, and sinajris, have e or i. Tigris, the tiger, has 
tigride; as a river it" has both Tigride and Tigri. 

Exc. 3. (a.') Nouns which have em or im in the accusative, have 
their ablative in e or i; as, turris, turre or turri. 

(b.) So Elis, ace. Elid&m and Elin, has Elide or Eli. But restis, and most 
Greek nouns with fc&s in the genitive, have e only ; as, Paris, -idis, -ide. 

Exc. 4. («.) Adjectives in is, used as nouns, have commonly i in the abla- 
tive, but sometimes e; as, familidris, a friend; ndtalis, a birthday; soddlis, a 
companion; triremis, a trireme. — Participles in m, used as nouns, have com- 
monly 6 in the ablative, but continms has i. 



Collis, 


Ignis, 


Pars, 


SupelleXj 


Convallis, 


Imber, 


Postis, 


Trldens, 


Corbis, 


Mugilis, 


Pugil, 


Unguis, 


Finis, 


Orbis, 


Sordes, 


Vectis, 


Fustis, 


Ovis, 


Sors, 


Vesper. 



§ 83. THIRD DECLENSION. PLURAL CASES. 43 

(6.) When adjectives in is become proper names, they always have e ; as, 
Juvendlis, Juvendle. Afflnis and ccdilis have generally e ; as have always juvii- 
nis, a youth ; riidis, a rod ; and volucris, a bird. 

Exc. 5. (a.) The following, though they have only em in the accusative, 
have e or i in the ablative, but most of them have oftener e than i : — 
Amnis, 
Anguis, 
Avis, 
Bllis, 
Civis, 
Classis, 

(b.) Occiput has only i, and rus has either e or i; but rare commonly signifies 
from the country, and rvri, jn the country. Mel has rarely i. 

(c.) So also names of towns, when denoting the place where any thing is 
said to be, or to be done, have the ablative in i ; as, Carthagini, at Carthage ; 
so, Anxuri and Laced&moni, and, in the most ancient writers, many other nouns 
occur with this termination in the ablative. Candlis has i, and very rarely e. 

Exc. 6. Nouns in ys, which have ym or yn in the accusative, have their ab- 
lative in ye or y ; as, Atys, Atye, or Aty. 

NOMINATIVE PLUKAL. 

§ 83. I. The nominative plural of masculines and feminines 
ends in es ; as, sermones, rupes: — but neuters have a, and those 
whose ablative singular ends in i only, or in e and i, have ia ; as, 
caput, capita ; sedlle, sedilia ; rite, retia. Aplustre has both a and ia. 

I. Some Greek neuters in os have e in the nominative plural ; as, mUo& ; 
nom. plural, mele; (in Greek pixi*, by contraction /ui\»). So Tempe. 

GENITIVE PLUKAL. 

II. The genitive plural commonly ends in um ; sometimes in turn. 

1. Nouns which, in the ablative singular, have i only, or both e 
and z, make the genitive plural in ium ; as, sedlle, sedlli, sedilium ; 
turris, turre or turri, turrium. 

2. Nouns in es and is, which do not increase in the genitive singu- 
lar, have ium ; as, nubes, nubium ; hostis, hostivm. 

Exc. Cunis, juvenis, fdris, mugilis, proles, strues, and vates, have um; so oftener 
have apis, strigilis, and volucris ; less frequently mensis, sedes, and, in the poets 
only, ambages, caides, clddes, vepres, and cozlestis. 

3. Monosyllables ending in two consonants have ium in the geni- 
tive plural ; as, urbs, urbium ; gens, gentium ; arx, arcium. 

Exc. Lynx, sphinx, and ops (nom. obsolete) have um. 

Most monosyllables in s and x pure have um, but the following have ium; 
dos, mas, glis, lis, os (ossis), faux, (nom. obs.) nix, nox, strix, vis, generally 
fraus and mus ; so also fur and ren, and sometimes lar. 

4. Nouns of two or more syllables, in ns or rs, and names of na- 
tions in as, have commonly ium, but sometimes um; as, cliens, clien- 
tium or clientum ; Arplnas, Arpinatium. 



44 THIRD DECLENSION. PLURAL CASES. § 84, 85. 

(1.) Other nouns in as generally have urn, but sometimes ium; as, cetas, ceta- 
tum or cEtatium. Penates and optimdtes have usually ium. 

5. The following have ium: — cdro, compes, linter, imber, titer, venter, Samnis, 
Quiris, and usually Insuber. Fornax and pdlus have sometimes ium. 

6. Greek nouns have generally um; as, gigas, gigantum; Arabs, Ardbum; 
Thrax, Thrdcum ; — but a few, used as titles of books, have sometimes on ; as, 
Epigramma, epigrammdton ; Metamorphosis, -eon. The patrial Maledn also is 
found in Curtius, 4, 13. 

Eemark 1. Bos has bourn in the genitive plural. 

Rem. 2. Nouns which want the singular, form the genitive plural as if they 
were complete; as, manes, manium; cailites, cmlitum; ilia, ilium; as if from 
manis, cozies, and lie. So also names of feasts in alia ; as, Saturnalia, Saturna- 
lium ; but these have sometimes drum after the second declension. Ales has 
sometimes, by epenthesis, alituum. See § 322, 3. 

DATIVE AND ABLATIVE PLURAL. 
§ 84:. The dative and ablative plural end in ibus. 

Exc. 1. Bos has bobus and bubus, by contraction, for bovibus ; sus has sttbus by 
syncope, for sulbus. § 322, 5, and 4. 

Exc. 2. Greek nouns in ma have the dative and ablative phiral more fre- 
quently in is than in ibus ; as, poema, poemdtis, or poematxbus. 

Exc. 3. The poets sometimes form the dative plural of Greek nouns, that in- 
crease in the genitive, in si, and, before a vowel, in sin ; as, herois, heroidis ; 
heroisi, or heroisin. Ovid. So in Quintilian, Metamorphosed. 

ACCUSATIVE PLURAL. 

§ 85. The accusative plural ends, like the nominative, in es, 
a, id. 

Exc. 1. The accusative plui'al of masculines and feminines, whose genitive 
plural ends in ium, anciently ended in is or eis, instead of es ; as, paries, gen. 
partium, ace. parteis or partes. 

Exc. 2. Greek masculines and feminines, whose genitive increases in is or os 
impure, have their accusative in as ; as, lampas, lampddis, lampddas. So also 
heros, herois, heroas, and some barbarian names of nations have a similar form; 
as, Brigantas, Allobrdgas. 



Jupiter, and vis, strength, are thus declined : — 



Singular. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. Ju'-pi-ter, 


N. vis, 


vl'-res, 


G. Jo'-vis, 


G. vis, 


vir'-i-um, 


D. Jo'-vi, 


D. — 


vir'-i-bus, 


Ac. Jo'-vem, 


Ac. vim, 


vl'-res, 


V. Ju'-pi-ter, 


V. vis, 


vl'-res, 


Ab. J6'-ve. 


Ab. vi. 


vir'-i-bus. 



§ 86-88. 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



45 



§ 80. The following table exhibits the principal forms of Greek 
nouns of the third declension : — 



S. 
PL 

S. 
PL 



Nom. 
Lampas, 

-ades, 
Heros, 

-oes, 
Chelys, 
Poesis, 

Achilles, 

Orpheus, 

Aer, 

Dido, 




Ace. 
j" -adem, 
I -ada, 
j -ades, 

-adas, 

-oem, 

-oa, 

-oes, 

-oas, 



im, j 
in, j 
em,_ ) 
ea, en, j 



-ea, 

-era, 

-o, 



Voc. 
-as, 
-ades, 
-os, 
-oes, 
-7» 



Abl. 
-ade. 
-adibus. 

oe. 
-oibus. 

ye or y. 
-i. 

-e or -i. 

See § 54. 
ere. 
-o. 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



§ 87. Nouns of the fourth declension end in us and u. 
Those in us are masculine ; those in u are neuter, and, except in 
the genitive, are indeclinable in the singular. 



Nouns of this declension are thus declined : — 



Fructus, fruit. 



Singular. 
N. fruc'-tus, 
G. fruc'-tus, 
D. fruc'-tu-I, 
Ac. fruc'-tum, 
V. fruc'-tus, 
Ab. fruc'-tu. 



Plural. 
fruc'-tus, 
fruc'-tu-um, 
fruc'-ti-bus, 
fruc'-tus, 
fruc'-tus, 
fruc'-ti-bus. 



Cornu, a horn. 



Singular. 
N. cor'-nu, 
G. cor'-nus, 
D. cor'-nu, 
Ac. cor'-nu, 
V. cor'-nu, 
Ab. cor'-nu. 



Plural. 
cor'-nu-a, 
cor'-nu-iim, 
cor'-ni-bus, 
cor'-nu-a, 
cor'-nu-a, 
cor'-ni-bus. 



Can'-tus, a song. 
Cur'-rus, a chariot. 
Ex-er'-ci-tus, an army. 



In like manner decline 

Fhic'-tus, a wave. 
Luc'-tus, grief. 
Mo'-tus, motion. 



Se-na'-tus, the senate. 
Ge'-lu, ice. (in sing.) 
Ve'-ru, a spit. 



§88. 



Exceptions in Gender. 
1. The following are feminine : — 



Acus, a needle. 
Domus, a house. 



Ficus, a Jig. 
Manus, a hand. 



Porticus, a gallery. 
Tribus, a tribe. 



46 FOURTH DECLENSION. EXCEPTIONS. § 89. 

C6lus, a distaff, and the plurals Quinqudtrus, a feast of Minerva, and Idus, the 
Ides, are also feminine. So noctu, by night, found only in the ablative singular. 

Penus, a store of provisions, when of the fourth declension, is masculine or 
feminine. Secus, sex, is neuter; see § 94. Specus, a den, is masculine and 
rarely feminine or neuter. 

2. Some personal appellatives, and names of trees, are feminine by 
signification; as, 

Anus, nurus, socrus ; — cornus, laurus, and quercus. Myrtus also is feminine 
and rarely masculine. See § 29, 1 and 2. 

Exceptions in Declension. 

§ 80. Damns, a house, is partly of the fourth declension, and 
partly of the second. It is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural. 

N. do'-mus, do'-mus, 

G. do'-mus, or do'-mi, dom'-u-um, or do-mS'-rum, 

D. dom'-u-I, or do'-mo, dom'-i-biis, 

Ac. do'-miim, do'-mus, or do'-mos, 

V. do'-mus, do'-mus, 

Ah. do'-mo. dom'-I-bus. 

(a.) Domus, in the genitive, signifies, of a house; doml commonly signifies, 
at home. The ablative domu is found in Plautus, and in ancient inscriptions. 
In the genitive and accusative plural the forms of the second declension are 
more used than those of the fourth. 

(&.) Cornus, a cornel-tree ; ficus, a fig, or a fig-tree; laur-us, a laurel; and 
myrtus, a myrtle, are sometimes of the second declension. Penus is of the 
second, third or fourth declension. 

(c.) Some nouns in u have also forms in us and um; as, cornu, cornus, or cw- 
num. Adjectives, compounds of manus, are of the first and second declensions. 

Remark 1. Nouns of this declension anciently belonged to the third, and 
were formed by contraction, thus : — 

Singular. Plural. 

N. fructus, frutues, us, 

G. fructuls, -us, fructuum, -iim, 

D. fructui, -u, fructuibus, -ubus, or -Ibus, 

Ac. fructuem, -um, fructues, us, 

V. fructus, fructues, -us, 

Ab. fructue, -u. fructuibus, -ubus, or -ibus. 

2. The genitive singular in is is sometimes found in ancient authors; as, 
anuis, Ter. A genitive in i, after the second declension, also occurs ; as, sena- 
ius, sendti ; tumultus, tumulti. Sail. 

3. The contracted form of the dative in u is not often used; yet it sometimes 
occurs, especially in Csesar, and in the poets. 

4. The contracted form of the genitive plural in um rarely occurs. 

5. The following nouns have ubus in the dative and ablative 
plural : — 

Acus, a needle. Artus, a joint. Partus, a birth. Specus, a den. 

Arcus, a bow. Lacus, a lake. Pecu, a flock. Tribus, a tribe. 

Genu, a knee; portus, a harbor; tonitrus, thunder; and vSru, a spit, have ibus 
or ubus. 



§ 90, 91. FIFTH DECLENSION. 47 

FIFTH DECLENSION. 

§ 00. Nouns of the fifth declension end in is, and are of 
the feminine gender. 



They are thus declined : — 






Kes, 


a thing. 


Dies, 


a day. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. res, 


res, 


N. di'-es, 


di'-es, 


G. re'-i, 


re'-rum, 


G. di-e'-i, 


di-e'-rum, 


D. re'-I, 


re'-bus, 


D. di-e'-i, 


di-e'-bus, 


Ac. rem, 


res, 


Ac. di'-em, 


di'-es, 


V. res, 


res, 


V. di'-es, 


di'-es, 


Ab. re. 


re'-bus. 


Ab. di'-e. 


di-e'-bus. 



Remark. Nouns of this declension, like those of the fourth, seem to have 
belonged originally to the third declension. 

Exceptions in Gender. 

1. Dies, a day, is masculine or feminine in the singular, and always 
masculine in the plural ; meridies, mid-day, is masculine only. 

Note. Dies is seldom feminine, in good prose writers, except when it de- 
notes duration of time, or a day fixed and determined. 

Exceptions in Declension. 

2. The genitive and dative singular sometimes end in e or in i, instead of ei ; 
as, gen. die for diei, Virg. ; fide for fidei, Hor. ; acie for aciei, Cass. — gen. plebi 
for plebei, Liv. — dat. fide for fidei, Hor., pernicie } Liv., and pernicii, Nep., for 
pernuiei. The genitive rabies contracted for rabieis, after the third declension, 
is found in Lucretius. 

Remark 1. There are only about eighty nouns of this declension, and of 
these only two, res and dies, are complete in the plural. Acies, effigies, eluvies, 
fades, glacies, progenies, series, species, spes, want the genitive, dative, and ab- 
lative plural, and the rest want the plural altogether. 

Rem. 2. All nouns of this declension end in ies, except four— -fides, faith; 
res, a thing; spes, hope; and plebes, the common people; — and all nouns in ies 
are of this declension, except abies, aries, paries, quies, and requies, which are 
of the third declension. 

Declension of Compound Nouns. 

§ 01. When a compound noun consists of two nominatives, both 
parts are declined ; but when one part is a nominative, and the other 
an oblique case, the nominative only is declined. Of the former kind 
are respublica, a commonwealth, and ju.y'urandum, an oath ; of the 
latter, mater-familias, a mistress of a family. Cf. § 43, 2. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. V. res-pub '-11-ca, iV. V. res-pubMi-cae, 

G. D. re-i-pub'-li-cse, G. re-rum-pub-li-ca'-rum, 

Ac. rem-pub'-ll-cam, D. Ab. re-bus-pub'-li-cis, 

Ab. re-pub'-H-ca. Ac. res-pub'-U-cas. 



48 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 92. 



Singular. Plural 

N. jus-ju-ran'-dum, ju-ra-ju-ran'-da, 

G. ju-ris-ju-ran'-di, 

D. ju-ri-ju-ran'-do, 

Ac. jus^u-ran'-dum, ju-ra-ju-ran'-da, 

V. jus-ju-ran'-dum, ju-ra-ju-ran'-da. 

Ah. ju-re-ju-ran'-do. 



Singular. 
N. ma-ter-fa-miF-i-as, 
G. ma-tris-fa-miT-i-as, 
D. ma-tri-fa-mil'-i-as, 
Ac. ma-trem-fa-miT-i-as, 
V. ma-ter-fa-milM-as, 
Ah. ina-tre-fa-miT-i-as, etc. 



Note. The preceding compounds are divided and pronounced like the simple words of 
which they are compounded. 

IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

§ ©5$. Irregular nouns are divided into three classes — 
Variable, Defective, and Redundant. 

I. VAKIABLE NOUNS. 

A noun is variable, which, in some of its parts, changes either 
its gender or declension or both. 

Nouns which vary in gender are called heterogeneous ; those 
which vary in declension are called heteroclites. 

Heterogeneous Nouns. 

1. Masculine in the singular, and neuter in the plural; as, 

Avernus, Dindymus, Ismarus, Massicus, Mamalus, Pangceus, Tartarus, Tayge- 
tus ; plur. Averna, etc. 

2. Masculine in the singular, and masculine or neuter in the plu- 
ral; as, 

jocus, a jest; plur. joci, or jdca; — Idcus, a place; plur. loci, passages in books, 
topics, places ;Joca, places; — sibilus,& hissing; plur. sibila, rarely sibili; — intubus, 
endive ; plur. intubi or intuba. 

3. Feminine in the singular, and neuter in the plural ; as, 

carbarns, a species of flax; plur. carbasa, very rarely carbdsi, sails, etc., made 
of it ; — Hierosolyma, -ce, Jerusalem ; plur. Hierosolyma, -drum. 

4. Neuter in the singular, and masculine in the plural ; as, 
caelum, heaven; plur. cozli; — Elysium; plur. Elysii ; — Argos; plur. Argi. 

So siser, neut., plur. siseres, masc. 

5. Neuter in the singular, and masculine or neuter in the plural ; 
as, 

frenum, a bridle ; plur. freni or frena ; — rastrum, a rake ; plur. rastri, or, 
more rarely, rostra ;—pug(llar, a writing tablet ; plur. pugilldres or pugillaria. 

6. Neuter in the singular, and feminine in the plural; as, 

epidum, a feast; plur. epiike ; — balneum, a bath; plur. balnece or balnea; — 
nundlnum, a market-day ; plur. nundinal, a fair. 

7. Feminine or neuter in the singular, and feminine in the plural ; 
as, 

delicia or delictum, delight ; plur. delicice. 



§ 93, 94. 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



49 



Heteroclites. 

§ 03. 1. Second or third declension in the singular, and third 
in the plural ; as, 

nora. and ace. jugerum, an acre; gen. jugeri or jugeris; abl. jugero and 
jugere; plur., nom., and ace. jugera; gen. jugerum; abl. jugeris and jugeribus. 

2. Third declension in the singular, and second in the plural; as, 
vas, a vessel ; plur. vdsa, drum. Anclle, a shield, has sometimes anciliorum, 
in the genitive plural. 

Note. Variable nouns seem anciently to have been redundant, and to have retained 
a part of each of their original forms. Thus, vasa, -orum, properly comes from vasum, 
-i, but the latter, together with the plural of vas, vasis, became obsolete. 



II. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 

§ 04:. Nouns are defective either in case or in number. 

1. Nouns defective in case may want either one or more cases. 
Some are altogether indeclinable, and are called aptotes. 

Such are pondo, a pound ; most nouns in i ; as, gummi, gum : foreign words ; 
as, Aaron, Jacob: semis, a half ; git, a kind of plant; the singular of mille, a 
thousand ; words put for nouns ; as, telle, suum, for sua voluntas, his own inclina- 
tion; and names of the letters of the alphabet. 

A noun which is found in one case only, is called a Monoptote ; 
if found in two cases, a Diptote ; if in three, a Triptote ; if in four, a 
Tetraptote ; and if in five, a Pentaptote. 

The following list contains most nouns defective in case. Those 
which occur but once in Latin authors are distinguished by an as- 
terisk : — 



*Abactus, acc.pl. ; a driving away. 

Accitu, abl. ; a calling for. 

Admisstt, abl.; admission. 

Admonitu, abl. ; admonition. 

JE<, not used in gen. pi. 

Affatu, abl. ; an addressing ; — -pi. afFa- 

tus, -Ibus. 
Algus, nom. ; algum, ace. ; algu, abl. ; 

cola. 
Ambage, abl. ; a going around ;— pi. 

entire. 
*Amissum, ace. ; a loss. 
Aplustre, nom. and ace. ; the flag of a 

ship;— pi. aplustria, or aplustra. 
Arbitratus, nom.; -um, ace; -u, abl. ; 

judgment. 
Arcessitu, abl. ; a sending for. 
Astu, nom., ace. ; a city. 
Astus, nom. ; astu, abl; craft ; — astus, 

ace. pi. 
Cacoethes, nom., ace. ; an evil cus- 
tom; — cacoethe, nom. pi.; -e, and 

-es, ace. pi. 
Canities, nom. ; -em, nee. ; -e, abl. 
5 



Cetos, ace. ; a whale; — cete, nom. and 
ace. pi.; cetis, dat. 

Chaos, nom. ace; chao, abl.; chaos. 

Cassem, ace. ; casse, abl. ; a net ;—pl. 
entire. 

Circumspectus, nom. ; -um ; -u ; a look- 
ing around. 

Coactu, abl. ; constraint. 

Coalite, abl. ; pi. entire ; inhabitants of 
heaven. 

*Commutatum, ace. ; an alteration. 

Compedis, gen. ; compede, abl. ; a fet- 
ter ;— pi. compedes, -ium, -Ibus. 

Concessu, abl. ; permission. 

Condiscipulatu, abl. ; companionship at 
school. 

Cratim, or -em, ace. ; -e, abl. ; a hur- 
dle ;—pl. crates, -ium, -Ibus. 

Cupressu, abl. ; a cypress. 

Daps, nom., scarcely used; dapis, gen. 
etc. pi. dapes, -Ibus; a feast. 

*Datu, abl. ; a giving. 

Derisus, -ui, dat. ; -um, ace. ; -u, abl, j 
ridicule. 



5C 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



§94. 



Despicatui, dat. ; contempt. 
Dica, nom. ; dicam, ace. ; a legal pro- 
cess ; — dicas, ace. pi. 
Dicis, gen. ; as, dicis gratia, for form's 

sake. 
Ditionis, gen. ; -[, dat. ; -em, ace. ; -e, 

abl. ; power. 
Diu, abl. ; in the day time. 
Divisui, dat. ; a dividing. 
Ebur, ivory ; — not used in the plural. 
*Efflagitatu, abl. ; importunity. 
*Ejectus, nom. ; a throwing out. 
Epos, nom. and ace. ; an epic poem. 
Ergo, abl. (or adv.) ; for the sake. 
Essedas, ace. pi. ; war chariots. 
Evectus, nom. ; a carrying out. 
Fsex, dregs, wants gen. pi. 
Fame, abl. ; hunger. 
Far, corn, not used in the gen., dot., 

and abl.pl. 
Fas, nom. ; ace. ; right. 
Fauce, abl. ; the throat;— pi. entire. 
Fax, a torch, wants gen. pi. 
Fel, gall, wants gen. pi. 
Feminis, gen. ; -i, dat. ; -e, abl. ; the 

thigh ;—pl. femina, -Ibus. 
Flictu, abl. ; a striking. 
Foris, nom. and gen. ; -em, ace ; -e, 

abl. ; a door ; — pi. entire. 
Fors, nom. ; -tis, gen. ; -tem, ace. ; -te, 

abl. ; chance. 
*Frustratui, abl. ; a deceiving. 
Frux, fruit, nom. scarcely used; — 

frugis, gen., etc. 
Fulgetras, ace. pi. ; lightning. 
Gausape, nom., ace, abl. ; a rough gar- 
ment; — gausapa, ace. pi. 
Glos, nom. ; a husband's sister. 
Grates, ace. pi. ; — gratibus, abl.; thanks. 
Hebdomadam, ace. ; a week. 
Hiems, winter, not used in gen., dat., 

and abl. pi. 
Hippomanes, nom. and ace. 
*Hir, nom. ; the palm of the hand. 
Hortatu, abl. ; an exhorting ;—pl. hor- 

tatibus. 
Impetis, gen. ; -e, abl. ; a shock;— pi. 

impetibus. 
Incltas, or -a, ace. pi. ; as, ad incltas 

redactus, reduced to a strait. 
*Inconsultu, abl. ; without advice. 
*Indultu, abl. ; indulgence. 
Inferias, nom. pi. ; -as, ace. ; -is, abl. ; 

sacrifices to the dead. 
Infitias, ace. pi. ; a denial ; as, ire infit- 

ias, to deny. 
IngratiiSj abl. pi., (used adverbially) ; 

against one's will. 
Injussu, abl. ; without command. 
Inquies, nom. ; restlessness. 
Instar, nom., ace. ; a likeness. 



Interdiu, abl. (or adv.); in the day time. 
*Invitatu, abl. ; an invitation. 
Irrisui, dat. ; -um, ace. ; -u, abl. ; de- 
rision. 
Jovis, nom., rarely used;— pi. Joves. 
Jugeris, gen. ; -e, abl. ; an acre ;—pl. 

jugera, -um, -Ibus. 
Jussu, abl. ; command. 
Labes, a spot, wants gen. pi. 
Liicu, abl. ; day-light. 
*Ludificatui, dat. ; a mockery. 
Lux, light, wants the gen. pi. 
Mandatu, abl. ; a command. 
Mane, nom., ace. ; mane, or rarely -i, 

abl. ; the morning. 
Mel, honey, not used in gen., dat., and 

abl. pi. 
Melos, nom., ace; melo, dat. ; melody; 

— mele, nom., ace. pi. 
Metus, fear, not used in gen., dat, and 

abl. pi. 
Missu, abl. ; a sending ;—pl. missus, 

-ibus. 
Monltu, abl. ; admonition ; — pi. mon- 

Itus. 
Natu, abl. ; by birth. 
Nauci, gen., with non; as, homo non 

nauci, a man of no account. 
Nefas, nom., ace. ; wickedness. 
Nemo, nobody, wants the voc. and 

the pi. 
Nepenthes, nom., ace. ; an herb. 
Nex, death, wants the voc. ; — neces, 

nom., ace. pi. 
Nihil, or nihilum, nom. and ace. ; -i, 

gen. ; -o, abl. ; nothing. 
Noctu, abl. ; by night. 
Nuptui, dat. ; -um, ace. ; -u, abl. ; 

marriage. 
Obex, nom. ; -icem, ace. ; -ice, or -jice, 

abl. ; a bolt;— pi. obices, -jicibus. 
Objectum, ace. ; -u, abl. ; an interposi- 
tion;— pi. objectus. 
Obtentui, dat . ; -um, ace. ; -u, abl. ; a 

pretext. 
Opis, gen. ; opem, ace. ; ope, abl. ; 

help;— pi. entire. 
Oppositu, abl. ; an opposing ;—pl. op- 

posltus, ace. 
Opus, nom., ace. ; need. 
Os, the mouth, wants the gen. pi. 
Panaces, nom. ; -is, gen. ; -e, abl. ; an 

herb. 
Pax, peace, wants gen. pi. 
Peccatu, abl. ; a fault. 
Pecudis, gen. ; -i, dat. ; -em, ace. ; -e, 

abl. ;—pl. entire. 
Pelage, ace pi. of pelagus; the sea. 
Permissu, abl. ; -um, ace. ; permission. 
Piscatus, nom. ; -i, gen. ; -um, ace. ; 
-u, abl. ; a fshing. 



§ 95. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 51 

Pix, pitch ; p!ces, ace. pi Suppetiae, nom. pi ; -as, ace. ; sup- 

Pondo, abl ; in weight. Cf. § 94, 1. plies. 

Preci, dat. ; -era, ace. ; -e, abl ; prayer ; Tabum, nom. ; -i, gen. ; -o, abl. ; cor- 

—pl. entire. rupt matter. 

Procer; nom.; -em, ace.; a peer;— pi Tempe, nom. ace. voc. pi; a vale in 

entire. Thessaly. 

Promp tu, abl, readiness. Tus wants gen., dat, and abl pi 

Pus wants gen. dat. and abl. pi. Venui and -o, dat. ; urn, ace.; -o, abl ; 

Relatum, ace. ; — u, abl ; a recital sale. 

Repetdndarum, gen. pi. ; -is, abl ; Veprem, ace. ; -e, abl. ; a brier ;—pL 

money taken by extortion. entire. 

Rogatu, abl. ; a request. Verberis, gen. ; -e, abl ;■ a stripe;— pi 

Ros, dew, wants gen. pi. verb era, um, Ibus. 

Rus, the country, wants gen., dat., and Vesper, nom.; -um, ace-; -e, -i, or -o, 

abl. pi. am. ; the evening. 

Satias, nom.; -atem, ace; ate, abl. ; Vesp era, nom.; -am, ace. ; -a, abl. ; the 

satiety. evening. 

Secus, nom., ace. ; sex. Vlcis, gen. ; -i, dat. ; -em, ace. ; -e, 

Situs, nom. ; -um, ace. ; -u, abl. ; sitna- abl. ; change ; — pi entire, except gen. 

tion ; — situs, nom. and ace. pi Virus, nom. ; -i, gen, ; -us, ace. ; -o, abl. ; 

Situs, nom. ; -u*, gen. ; -um, ace. ; -u, poison. 

abl; rust; — situs, ace. pi Vis, gen. and dat. rare ; strength; pi 

Sol, the sun, wants gen.pl. vires, -ium, etc. See § 85. 

Sordis, gen. ; -em, ace. ; -e and -i, abl; Viscus, nom.; -eris, gen. ; -ere, abl ; 

Jilth ;—pl. sordes,-ium, etc. an internal organ, pi viscera, etc. 

Spontis, yen.; -e, abl ; of one's own Vocatu, abl. ; a calling; — vocatus, ace. 

accord. pi. 
Suboles, offqjring, wants gen. pi 

Remark 1. To these may be added nouns of the fifth declension, which 
either want the plural, as most of them are abstract nouns, or have in that 
number only the nominative, accusative, and vocative. Res and dies, however, 
have the plural entire. Cf. \ 90, R. 1. 

Rem. 2. For the use of the vocative, also, of many nouns, no classical au- 
thority can be found. 

§ Oo. 2. Nouns defective in number, want either the plural or 
the singular. 

(a) Many nouns want the plural from the nature of the things 
which they express. Such are generally names of persons, most names 
of places (except those which have only the plural), the names of 
herbs, of the arts, most material and abstract nouns ; but these may 
have a plural when used as common nouns, (§ 26, R. 3.), and many 
others. 

Rem. In Latin the plural of abstract nouns is often used to denote the exist- 
ence of the quality, attribute, etc. in different objects, or the repetition of an 
action ; and in poetry such plurals are used for the sake of emphasis or metre. 
See § 98. 

The following list contains many of the nouns which want the plural, 
and also some, marked p, which are included in the above classes, but 
are sometimes used in the plural. 

Aconitum, wolfsbane, p. iEvum, age, lifetime, p. Balaustium, the flower of 

Adorea, a military re- Album, an album. the pomegranate. 

ward. Allium, garlic, p. Balsiimum, balsam, p. 

Aer, the air, p. Amicitia, friendship, p. Barathrum, a gulf. 

jEs, brass, money, p. Argilla, while clay. Callum, hardened shin, p. 

iEther, the sky. Avena, oats, p. Calor, heat, p. 



52 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



96. 



Carduus, a thistle, p. 
Caro, flesh, p. 
Cera, wax, p. 
Cestus, a girdle. 
Cicuta, hemlock, p. 
Coenum, mud. 
Contagium, contagion, p. 
Crocum, saffron. 
Crocus, saffron, p. 
Cruor, blood, p. 
Cutis, the shin, p. 
Diluculum, the dawn. 
Ebur, ivory. 
Electrum, amber, p. 
Far, corn, p. 
Fel, gall, p. 
Fervor, heat, p. 
Fides, faith. 
Flmus, dung. 
~Fuga, flight, p. 
Fumus, smoke, p. 
Furor, madness, p. 
Galla, an oak-apple, p. 
Gelu, frost. 
Glarea, gravel. 
Gloria, glory, p. 
Glastum, «?oaa. 
Gluten, or 
Glutinum, glue. 
Gypsum, white plaster. 
Hepar, the liver. 
Hesperus, the evening 

star. 
Hllum, a little thing. 
Hordeum, barley, p. 
Humus, the ground. 
Indoles, native quality, p. 
Ira, anger, p. 
Jubar, radiance. 
Jus, justice, law, p. 
Justitium, a law vacation. 



Lac, milk. 

Lsetitia, joy, p. 

Languor, faintness, p. 

Lardum, bacon, p. 

Latex, liquor, p. 

Letum, death. 

Lignum, wood, p. 

Limns, mud. 

Liquor, liquor, p. 

Lues, a plague. 

Lutum, clay, p. 

Lux, light, p. 

Macellum, the shambles. 

Mane, the morning. 

Marmor, marble, p. 

Mel, honey, p. 

Meridies, mid-day. 

Mors, <7ea$, p. 

Munditia, neatness, p. 

Mundus, female orna- 
ments. 

Muscus, moss. 

Nectar, nectar. 

Nemo, no man. 

Nequitia, wickedness, p. 

Nihilum, nihil, or nil, no- 
thing. 

Nitrum, natron. 

Oblivio, J b?' getfulness, p. 

Omasum, bullock's tripe. 

Opium, opium. 

Palea, chaff, p. 

Pax, peace, p. 

Penum, and 

Penus, provisions, p. 

Piper, pepper. 

Pix, pilch, p. 

Pontus, the sea. 

Prolubium, desire. 

Pubes, the youth. 

Pulvis, dust, 



Purpura, purple, p. 
Quies, rest, p. 
Eos, dew, p. 
Rubor, redness, p. 
Sabulo and 
Sabulum, gravel. 
Sal, salt. 
Salum, the sea. 
Salus, safety. 
Sanguis, blood. 
Scrupulum, a scruple, p. 
Senium, old age. 
Slier, an osier. 
Sinapi, mustard. 
Siser, skirret, p. 
Sitis, thirst. 
Sol, the sun, p. 
Sopor, sleep, p. 
Specimen, <m example. 
Spuma, foam, p. 
Sulfur, sulphur } p. 
Supellex, furniture. 
Tabes, a consumption. 
Tabum, corrupt matter. 
Tellus, the earth. 
Terror, terror, p. 
Thymum, thyme, p. 
Tribiilus, a thistle, p. 
Tristitia^ sadness. 
Ver, spring. 
Vespera, the evening. 
Veternus, lethargy. 
Vigor, strength, p. 
Vinum, wine, p. 
Virus, poison. 
Vis cum, and 
Viscus, bird-lime. 
Vitrum, woad. 
Vulgus, the common peo- 
ple. 
Zingiber, ginger. 



P- 

§00. (b). The names of festivals and games, and several names 
of places and books, want the singular ; as, Bacchanalia, a festival of 
Bacchus ; Olympia, the Olympic games ; Bucolica, a book of pastorals ; 
and the following names of places : — 



Acroceraunia, 


Baiae, 


Fundi, 


Locri, 


Siisa, 


Am} r clae, 


Ceraunia, 


Gabii, 


Parisii, 


Syracuse, 


Artaxata, 


Ecbatana, 


Gades, 


Philippi, 


Thermopylse, 


Athense, 


Esqnilia}, 


Gemoniae, 


Puteoli, 


Veii. 



Note. Some of those in i properly signify the people. 
The following list contains most other nouns which want the singular, 
and also some, marked 's, which are rarely used in that number : — 

Acta, records. Alpes, the Alps, s. Apina?, frt'tfes. 

Adversaria, a memoran- Aunales, annals, s. Argutioa, witticisms, s. 



dum-book. 
^Estiva, sc. castra, 
mer quarters. 



Ant33, door-posts. 
Antes, rows. 
Antiao, aforeloc':. 



Arma, arms. 
Artus, the joints, s. 
Bellaria, sweetmeats. 



§97. 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



53 



Blgae, a two-horse char- 
iot, s. 

Brace*, breeches. 

Branchiae, the gills of 
jishes. 

Brevia, shallow places. 

Calends, the Calends. 

Cancelli, balustrades. 

Cani, (/ray hairs. 

Cusses, a hunter's net, s. 

Caulae, sheep-folds. 

Celeres, the body-guard 
of the Roman kings. 

Cibaria, victuals, s. 

Clitellas, a pack-saddle. 

Codicilli, a writing. 

Ccelites, the gods, s. 

Crepundia, a rattle. 

Cunabiila, and ' 

Cunae, a cradle. 

Cyclades, the Cyclades, s. 

Declmae, tithes, 6. 

Dlrae, the Furies, s. 

Divitiae, riches. 

Druides, the Druids. 

Dryades, the Dryads, s. 

Epulae, a banquet, s. 

Eumemdes, the Furies, s. 

Excubias, watches. 

Exsequias, funeral rites. 

Exta, entrails. 

Exuviae, spoils. 

Eacetiae, pleasantry, s. 

Feriae, holidays, s. 

Fides, a stringed instru- 
ment, s. 

Flabra, blasts. 

F races, the lees of oil. 

Fraga, straicberries, s. 

Gemini, twins, s. 

Genae, cheeks, s. 

Gerrae, trifits. 

Grates, thanks. 

Habenae, reins, s. 

Hiberna, sc. castra, win- 
ter quarters. 

Hyades, the Hyades, s. 

Idus, the ides of a month. 

Ilia, the flank. 

Incunabula, a cradle. 

Indutiae, a truce. 

§97. 

numbers. 



Induvias, clothes. 

Ineptiiz,foole7ies, s. 

Inferi, the dead. 

Inferi3S,sacrifices in honor 
of the dead. 

Insecta, insects. 

Insidias, an ambuscade, s. 

Justa, funeral rites. 

Lactes, small entrails, s. 

Lamenta, lamentations. 

Lapicidlnas, a stone quar- 
ry. _ _ • 

Latebras, a hiding place, 
s. 

Laurices, young rabbits. 

Lautia, presents to for- 
eign a7nbassado}-*. 

Lemures, hobgoblins. 

Lendes, nits 

Liberi, children, s. 

Luceres, a division of the 
Roman cavalry. 

Magalia, cottages. 

Majores, ancestors. 

Manes, the shades, s. 

Manubias, spoils if war. 

Mapalia, huts, s. 

Minaciae, and 

Minae, threats. 

Minores, posterity. 

Moenia, the walls of a 
city, s. 

Multitia, garments finely 
wrought. 

Munia, official duties. 

Naiades, water-nymphs, s. 

Nares, the nostrils, s. 

Natales, parentage. 

Nates, the haunches, s. 

Nomas, corroding sores or 
ulcers., s. 

Ndnae, the nones of a 
month. § 326, 1. 

Nugas, jests, nonsense. 

Nundinal, the weekly mar- 
ket. 

Nuptiae, a marriage. 

Oblivia, for get fulness, s. 

Offuciae, cheats, s. 

Optimates, the aristo- 
cratic party, s. 



Palearia, the dewlap, s. 

Pandectae, the pandects. 

Parietlnas, old walls. 

Partes, aptarty, s. 

Pascua, pastures, s. 

Penates, household gods, 
s. 

Phaleras, trappings. 

Philtra, love potions. 

Pleiades, the Pleiads or 
seven stars, s. 

Postcri, posterity. 

Prasbia, an amulet. 

Prascordia, the dia- 
phragm., the entrails. 

Primitias, first fruits. 

Proceres, nobles, s. 

Pugillaria, or -ares, 
writing-tablets, s. 

Quadrigae, a team of four 
horses, s. ■'. 

Quirltes, Roman citizens, 
s. 

Quisquilias, refuse. 

Reliquias, the remains, s. 

Salebras, ruggedroads, s. 

Salinas, salt pits. 

Scalas, a ladder, s. 

Scatebras, a spring, s. 

Scop ae, a broom. 

Scruta, old stuff. 

Sentes, thorns, s. 

Sponsalia, 

Statlva, sc. castra, a 
stationary camp. 

Superi, the gods above. 

Talaria, winged shoes. 

Tenebras, darkness, s. 

Tesca, rough places. 

Thermas, warm baths. 

Tormina, colic-pains. 

Transtra, seats for row- 
ers, s. 

Tricas, trifles, toys. 

Utensilia, utensils. 

Valvae, folding doors, s. 

Vepres, brambles, s. 

Vergilias, the seven stars. 

Vindicias, a legal claim, s. 

Virgulta, bushes. 



The following usually differ in meaning in the different 



.Edes, -is, a temple. 
jEdes, -ium, a house. 
Aqua, water. 
Aquas, medicinal springs. 
Auxilium, aid. 
Auxilia, auxiliary troops. 
6* 



Bonum, a good thing. 
Bona, property. 
Career, a prison. 
Carceres, the barriers of 

a race-course. 
Castrum, a castle. 



Castra, a camp. 
Comitium, apart of the 

R^man forum. 
Co nitia, an assembly for 

election. 
Copia, plenty. 



54 



REDUNDANT NOUNS. 



98, 99. 



Copiae, troops, forces. 
Cupedia, -a?, daintiness. 
Cupedia?, -arum, and 
Cupedia, -orum, dainties. 
Facultas, ability. 
Facilitates, property. 
Fastus, -us, pride. 
Fastus, -uum, and 
Fasti, -orum, a calendar. 
Fortuna, Fortune. 
Fortuna?, wealth. 
Furfur, bran. 
Furfures, dandruff. 
Gratia, favor. 
Gratia?, thanks. 



Impedimentum, a hinder- 
ance. 

Impedimenta, baggage. 

Litera, a letter of the al- 
phabet. 

Lit era? , an epistle. 

Ludus, pastime. 

Ludi, public games. 

Lustrum, a morass. 

Lustra, a haunt or den of 
wild beasts. 

Mos, custom. 

Mores, manners. 

Naris, a nostril. 

Nares, the nose. 



Natalis, a birthday. 
Natales, birth, lineage. 
Opera, work, labor. 
Opera?, workmen. 
Opis, gen. power. 
Opes, -urn, means, wealth. 
Plaga, a region, tract. 
Plaga?, nets, toils. 
Principium, a beginning. 
Principia, the general's 

quarters. 
Kostrum, a beak, prow. 
Kostra, the Rostra. 
Sal, salt. 
Sales, witticisms. 



§ ©8. The following plurals, with a few others, are sometimes 
used in poetry, especially in the nominative and accusative, instead 
of the singular, for the sake of emphasis or metre. 



iEquSra, the sea. 
Alta, the sea. 
Animi, courage. 
Aura?, the air. 
Carina?, a keel. 
Cervices , the neck. 
Colla, the neck. 
Coma?, the hair. 
Connubia, marriage. 
Corda, the heart. 
Corpora, a body. 
Crepuscula, ' twilight. 
Currus, a chariot. 
Exsilia, banishment. 
F rigor a, cold. 
Gaudia, joy. 
Gramma, grass. 
Guttiira, the throat. 



Hymena?i, marriage. 

Ignes, love. 

Ingulna, the groin. 

L\-a?, anger. 

Jej unia, fasting. 

Juba?, a mane. 

Limina, a threshold. 

Litora, a shore. 

Mensa?, a service or course 
of dishes. 

Nenice, a funeral dirge. 

Numina, the divinity. 

Odia, hatred. 

Ora, the mouth, the coun- 
tenance. 

Ora?, confines. 

Ortus, a rising, the east. 

Otia, ease, leisure. 



Pectora, the breast. 

Reditus, a return. 

Kegna, a kingdom. 

Rictus, the jaws. 

Rob ora, strength. 

Silentia, silence. 

Sinus, the bosom of a Ro- 
man garment. 

Tseda?, a torch. 

Temp ora, time. 

Terga, the back. 

Thalami, marriage or 
marriage-bed. 

Tori, a bed, a couch. 

Tura, frankincense. 

Vise, a journey. 

Vultus, the countenance. 



III. REDUNDANT NOUNS. 



§ 00. Nouns are redundant either in termination, in declension, 
in gender, or in two or more of these respects. 

1. In termination: (a.) of the nominative ; as, arbor, and arbos, a tree: (b.) 
of the oblique cases ; as, tigris, ; gen. tigris, or -idis ; a tiger. 

2. In declension ; as, laurus ; gen. -i, or -us ; a laurel. 

3. In gender ; as, vulgus, masc. or neut. ; the common people. 

4. In termination and declension; as, senecta, -a, and senectus, -utis ; old 
age. 

5. In termination and gender; as pileus, masc, andpileum, neut.; a hat. 

6. In declension and gender; as penus, -i or Us, masc. or fern., and penus, 
-dris, neut. ; a store of provisions. Specus, -us or -i, masc. fern, or neut. ; a cave. 

7. In termination, declension, and gender; as, menda, -ce, fern, and mendum y 
-i, neut. ; a fault. 



99. 



REDUNDANT NOUNS. 



55 



The following list contains most Redundant Nouns of the above classes : — 



Acinus, -urn, and -a, a berry. 

Adagium, and -io, a proverb. 

Admonitio, -um, and -us, us, a remind- 
ing. 

iEthra, and aether, the clear shy. 

Affectio, and -us, us, affection. 

Agamemno, and -on, Agamemnon. 

Alabaster, tri, and pi. -tra, drum, an 
alabaster box. 

Alimonia, and -urn, aliment. 

Alluvio, and -es, a flood. 

Alvearium, and -are, a bee-hive. 

Amaracus, and -um, marjoram. 

Amygdala, and -um, an alniond. 

Anfractum, and -us, us, a winding. 

Angiportum, and -us, us, a narrow lane 
or alley. 

Antidotus, and -um, an antidote. 

Aranea, and -us, i, a spider. 

Arar, and Araris, the river Arar. 

Arbor, and -os, a tree. 

Architectus, and -on, an architect. 

Arcus, -us, and i, a bow. 

Attagena, and -gen, a moor-hen. 

Avaritia, and -ies, avarice. 

Augmentum, and -men, an increase. 

Baccar, and -aris, a hind of herb. 

Baculus, and -um, a staff. 

Balteus, and -um, a belt. 

Barbaria, and -ies, barbarism. 

Barbitus, and -on, a harp. 

Batillus, and -um, a fire-shovel. 

Blanditia, and -ies, flattery. 

Buccina, and -um, a trumpet. 

Bura, and -is, a plough-tail. 

Buxus, and -um, the box-tree. 

Caepa, and caepe, an onion. 

Calamister, tri, and -trum, a crisping- 
pin. 

Callus, and -um, hardened shin. 

Cancer, cri, or eris, a crab. 

Canitia, and -ies, hoariness. 

Capus, and capo, a capon. 

Carrus, and -um, a hind of waggon. 

Cassida, and -cassis, a helmet. 

Catlnus, and -um, a bowl, dish. 

Chirographus, and -um, a hand-writing. 

Cingula, -us, and -um, a girdle. 

Clipeus, and -um, a shield. 

Cochlearium, -ar, and -are, a spoon. 

Colluvio, and -ies, filth. 

Commentarius, and -um, a journal. 

Compages, and -go, a joining. 

Conatum, and -us, us, an attempt. 

Concinmtas, and -tudo, neatness. 

Consortium, and -io, partnership. 

Contagium, -io, and -es, contact. 

Cornum, -us, i, or us, a cornel tree. 

Costos,i, and -um, a hind of shrub. 



Cratera, and crater, a bowl. 
Crocus, and -um, saffron. 
Crystallus, and -um, crystal. 
Cubitus, and -um, the elbow. 
Cupiditas, and -pido, desire. 
Cupressus, i, or us, a cypress-tree. 
Delieia, and -um, delight. 
Delphinus, and delphin, a dolphin. 
Dictamnus, and -um, dittany. 
Diluvium, -o, and -ies, a deluge. 
Domus, i, or us, a house. 
Dorsus, and -um, the bach. 
Duritia, and -ies, hardness. 
Effigia, and -ies, an image. 
Elegla, and -on, i, an elegy. 
Elephantus, and -phas, an elephant. 
Epitoma, and -e, an abridgment. 
Esseda, and -um, a chariot. 
Evander, dri, and -drus, Evander. 
Eventum, and -us, us, an event. 
Exemplar, and -are, a pattern. 
Ficus, i, or us, a fig-tree. 
Fhnus, and -um, dung. 
Fretum, and -us, us, a strait. 
Fulgetra, and -um, lightning. 
Galerus, and -um, a hat, cap. 
Ganea, and -um, an eating-house. 
Gausapa, -es, -e, and -um, frieze. 
Gibba, -us, and -er, eri, a hump. 
Glutinum, and -ten, glue. 
Gobius, and -io, a gudgeon. 
Grammatica, and -e, grammar. 
Grus, gruis, and gruis, is, a crane. 
Hebdomada, am -mas, a week. 
Helleborus, and -um, hellebore. 
HSnor, and honos, honor. 
Hyssopus, and -um, hyssop. 
Ilios, -um, and -on, Troy. 
Incestum, and -us, us, incest. 
Intubus, and -um, endive. 
Jugulus, and -um, the throat. 
Juventa, -us, utis, and -as, youth. 
Labor, and labos, labor. 
Lacerta, and -us, a lizard. 
Laurus, i, or us, a laurel. 
Lepor, and lepos, wit. 
Ligur, and -us, iiris, a Ligurian. 
Lupinus, and -um, a lupine. 
Luxuria, and -ies, luxury. 
Masander, -dros, and -drus, Mozander. 
Margarita, and -um, a pearl. 
Materia, and -ies, materials. 
Medimnus, and -um, a measure. 
Menda, and -um, a fault. 
Modius, and -um, a measure. 
Mollitia, and -ies, softness. 
Momentum, and -men, influence. 
Mugil, and -ilis, a mullet. 
Mulciber, eri, or his, Vulcan. 



56 



DEBIVATION OF NOUNS. 



100. 



Mulctra, and -um, a milk-pail. 

Munditia, and -ies, neatness. 

Muria, and -ies, brine or pickle. 

Myrtus, i or us, a myrtle. 

Nardus, and -urn, nard. 

Nasus, and -um, ^e «ose. 

Necessltas, and -udo, necessity. 

Nequitia, and -ies, w&rthlessuess. 

Notitia, erne? -ies, knowledge. 

Oblivium, and -io, forgetfulness. 

Obsidium, and -io, a siege. 

(Edipus, t, or (ft/is, (Edipus. 

Osferea, and -urn, an oyster. 

Palatus, and -um, the palate. 

Palumba, -us, and -es, a pigeon. 

Papyrus, and -urn, papyrus. 

Paupertas, and -ies, poverty. 

Pavus, and pavo, a peacock. 

Perms, i, -dris, or us, and penum, pro- 
visions. 

Peplus, and -um, a veil. 

Perseus, ei, or eos, Perseus. 

Piletts, ana? -um, a hat. 

Pinus, i, or us, apine-tree. 

Pistrina, and -um, a bake-house. 

Planitia, and -ies, a plain. 

Plato, and Platon, Plato. 

Plebs, and plebes, ei, the common 
people. 

Porrus, and -um, a leek. 

Postulatum, and -io, a request. 

Praesepia, -ium, -es, or -is, and -e, a 
stable. 

Praetextum, and -us : Us, a pretext. 

Prosapia, and -ies, lineage. 

Eapa, and -um, a turnip. 

Requies, etis or ei, rest. 

Rete, and retis, a net. 

Reticulus, and -um, a small net. 



Rictum, and -us, us, the open mouth. 
Saavitia, -udo and, -ies, ferocity. 
Sagus, and -um, a military cloak. 
Sanguis, and sanguen, blood. 
Satrapes, and satraps, a satrap. 
Scabritia, ome? -ies, roughness. 
Scorpius, -os, and -io, a scorpion. 
Segmentum, and -men, apiece. 
Segnitia, and -ies, sloth. 
Senecta, and -us, old age. 
Sequester, tri, or tris, a trustee. 
Sesama, and -um, sesame. 
Sibilus, and -a, drum, a hissing. 
Sinapi, and -is, mustard. 
Sinus, and -um, a goblet. 
Sparus, and -a, drum, a spear. 
Spurcitia, and -ies, Jilthiness. 
Stramentum, and -men, straw. 
Suffimentum, and -men, fumigation. 
Suggestus, and -um, a pulpit, stage. 
Supparus, and -um, a linen garment. 
Supplicium, -icamentum, and -icatio, 

a public supplication. 
Tapetum, -ete, and -es, tapestry. 
Teneritas, and -tudo, softness. 
Tergum, and -us, oris, the back. 
Tiara, and -as, a turban. 
Tignus, and -um, a beam, timber. 
Tigris, is, or idis, a tiger. 
Titanus, and Titan, Titan. 
Tonitruum, and -trus, us, thunder. 
Torale, and -al, a bed-coveHng. 
Trabes, and trabs, a beam. 
Tribula, and -um, a threshing sledge. 
Vespera, -per, en and eris, the evening. 
Vinaceus, and -a,, 6rum } a grape-stone. 
Viscus, and -um, the mistletoe. 
Vulgus, masc. and neut., the common 
people. 



Remark 1. To these may be added some other verbals in us and io, and 
Greek nouns in o and on ; as, Dio and Dion ; also some Greek nouns in es and 
e, which have Latin forms in a; as, Atrldes and Atrida. See § 45. 

Rem. 2. Some proper names of places also are redundant in number; as, 
Argos and Argi ; Fidena and Fidena ; Thebe and Thebce. 

Note. The different forms of most words in the above list are not equally common, and 
some are rarely used, or only in particular cases. 



DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 

§ 100. Nouns are derived from other nouns, from adjectives, 
and from verbs. 

I. From Nouns. 

From nouns are derived the following classes : — 
1. A patronymic is the name of a person, derived from that of his 
father or other ancestor, or of the founder of his nation. 



§ 100. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 57 

Note 1. Patronymics are properly Greek nouns, and have been borrowed from that lan- 
guage by the Latin poets. 

(a.) Masculine patronymics end in ides, Ides, ades, and iddes. 

(1.) Nouns in us of the second declension, and those nouns of the third de- 
clension, whose root ends in a shoxt syllable, form their patronymics in ides; 
as, Pridmus, Priamides ; Ayamemndn, gen. 6nis, Agamemnonides. 

(2.) Nouns in eus and cles form their patronymics in Ides ; as, A-treus, Atrldes ; 
Heracles (i. e. Hercules,) Heraclldes. 

Rem. 1. sEnides, in Virg. A. 9, 653, is formed in like manner, as if from sEneus, 
instead of jEneas. 

(3.) Nouns in as and es of the first declension form their patronymics in ddes, 
as yEn'ds, JEniades ; Ilippotes, Hippdtddes. 

(4.) Nouns in ius of the second declension, and those nouns of the third de- 
clension, whose root ends in a long vowel, form their patronymics in iddes ; as, 
Thestlus, Thestiddes; Amphitryo (gen. oms), Amphitryo?iiddes. 

Rem 2. A few nouns also of the first declension have patronymics in iddes ; 
as, Anclusts, Anchisiddes. 

(ft.) Feminine patronymics end in is, eis, and ias, and correspond 
in termination to the masculines, viz. is to ides, eis to ides, and ias to 
lades : as, Tynddrus, masc. Tyndarides, fem. Tynddris ; Nereus, masc. 
Nereides, fem. Nereis ; Thestius, masc. Thestiddes, fern. Thestias. 

Rem. 3. A few feminines are found in Ine, or ione ; as, Nerine, Acrisione f 
from Nereus and Acrisius. 

Note 2. Patronymics in des and ne are of the first declension ; those in is 
and as, of the third. 

2. A. patriot or gentile noun is derived from the name of a country; 
and denotes an inhabitant of that country ; as, 

Tros, a Trojan man ; Troas, a Trojan woman : Macedo, a Macedonian ; 
Samnis, a Samnite ; from Troja, Macedonia, and Samnium. 

Note 3. Most patrials are properly adjectives, relating to a noun understood ; 
as, homo, civis, etc. See § 128, 6. 

3. A diminutive signifies a small thing of the kind denoted by the 
primitive; as, liber, a book ; libellus, a little book. 

Diminutives generally end in uhts, ula, ilium, or cuius, cula, culum, 
according as the primitive is masuline, feminine, or neuter. 

A. 1. If the primitive is of the first or second declension, or its root ends 
in c, y, d, or t after a vowel, the diminutive is formed by annexing ulus, a, 
um to the root ; as, arula, servulus, puerulus, scutulum, coi*nicula, reyulus, ca- 
pitulum, mercedula ; from dra, servus, puer, scutum, comix, {-ids), rex, {reyis), 
caput, (-itis), merces, (-edis.) 

2. Primitives of the first or second declension whose root ends in e or i, 
instead of ulus, a, um, add dlus, a, um ; as, flidlus, ghridla, horredlum ; from 
Jilius, yloria, horreum. 

3. Primitives of the first or second declension whose root ends in I, n, or r, 
form diminutives by contraction in ellus, a, um, and some in Ulus, a, um ; as, 
ocellus, asellus, libellus, lucellum; from oculus, asina, liber, lucrum; and siyillum, 
tiyillum, from signum, tiynum. 

B. 1. If the primitive is of the third, fourth, or fifth declension, the diminu- 
tive is formed in cuius, (or iculus), a, um. 

2. Primitives of the third declension whose nominative ends in r, or in os or 
us from roots ending in r, annex cuius to the nominative ; as, fraterculus, soror- 



58 DERIVATION OF NOUNS. § 101. 

ciila, osculum, corpusctilum ; from frdter, sdror, 8s, (dris), corpus, (-oris). — So also 
primitives in es and is, but these drop the s of the nominative ; as, igniculus, 
nubecula, diecula ; from ignis, nubes, dies. 

3. Primitives of other terminations of the third declension, and those of the 
fourth, add iculus to the root ; as, ponticulus, coticula, ossiculum, versiculus, corni- 
culum; from pons, cos, ds, (ossis), versus, cornu. 

4. Primitives in o, (inis or onis), in adding cuius, a, um, change the final vowel 
of the root (i or o) into u ; as, homunculus, sermunculus ; from homo and sermo ; 
and a few primitives of other terminations form similar diminutives ; as, avun- 
culus, domuncula ; from dvus and ddmus. 

G. 1. A few diminutives end in ulcus , as, equuleus, aculeus ; from equus and 
acus ; and a few also in io ; as, homuncio, senecio, from homo and senex. 

2. Diminutives are sometimes formed from other diminutives ; as, asellulus, 
from asellus ; sometimes two or more diminutives with different terminations 
are formed from the same primitive , as, homunculus, homullus, and homuncio ; 
from hdmo ; and sometimes the primitive undergoes euphonic changes ; as ru- 
musculus, from rumor. 

Rem. Some diminutives differ in gender from their primitives ; as ranun- 
culus, scamillus, from rana and scamnum. 

4. (a.) An amplificative is a personal appellation denoting an ex- 
cess of that which is expressed by its primitive ; as, 

Capito, one who has a large head: so ndso, labeo, bucco,fronto, mento, one who 
has a large nose, lips, or cheeks, a broad forehead or long chin; from caput, 
ndsus, labia, bucca, from, and mentum. 

(b.) A few personal appellatives in io denote the trade or profession to which 
a person belongs ; as, ludio, an actor ; pellio, a furrier ; from ludus, sm&peMis. 

5. The termination ium added to the root of a noun, indicates the office or 
condition, and often, derivatively, an assemblage of the individuals denoted by 
the primitive ; as, collegium, colleagueship, and thence an assembly of col- 
leagues ; servitium, servitude, and collectively the servants ; so sacerdotium, and 
ministerium ; from collega, servus, sacerdos, and minister. 

6. The termination imonium is added to the root of a few nouns, denoting 
something derived from the primitives, or imparting to it its peculiar character; 
as, testimonium, testimony ; so vadimonium, patHmonium, matrimonium ; from 
testis, vas (vddis), pater, and mater. 

7. The termination etum, added to the root of names of plants, denotes a 
place where they grow in abundance ; as, quercetum, lauretum, olivetum, from 
quercus, laurus, and ollva. 

So, also, msculetum, dumetum, myrtetum, and by analogy saxetum. But some 
drop e ,* as, carectum, salictum, virgultum, and arbustum. 

8. The termination drium, added to the root of a noun, denotes a receptacle 
of the things signified by the primitive ; as, avidrium, an aviary ; plantdnum, a 
nursery ; from avis, a bird, and planta, a plant. 

9. The termination lie, added to the root of names of animals, marks the 
place where they are kept ; as, bovlle, n stall for oxen ; so caprlle, ovlle ; from 
Ods, an ox, caper, a goat, and dvis, a sheep. 

Note 1. This class and the preceding are properly neuter adjectives. 
Note 2. Abstract nouns are derived either from adjectives or from verbs. 
See § 26, 5. 

II. Feom Adjectives. 

§ 101. 1. Abstract nouns are formed by adding the termination 
Ktas, itudo, ia, itia or ities, edo, and imonia to the root of the primitive. 



§ 102. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 59 

2. Abstracts in Has, (equivalent to the English ty or iiy), are formed from 
adjectives of each declension ; as, eupiditas, teneritas, celeri'tas, cwdelitas, feHci- 
tas; from cupidus, tener, celer, ci~udHis, and felix. 

(1.) When the root ends in i, the abstract is formed in etas; as, pietas, from 
pius ; and when it ends in t, as only is added ; as, honestas from honestus. 

(2.) In a few abstracts i before tas is dropped ; as, libertas, juventas, from 
liber, juvenis. Iwfacultas and difficultas, from facilis, difficilis, there is a change 
also in the root-vowel from i to u. 

(3.) A few abstracts are formed in itus or tus, instead of itas; as, servilus, 
juventus, from servos and juvenis. See § 76, Exc. 2. 

3. Abstracts in itudo are formed from adjectives in us, and some from adjec- 
tives of the third declension of two or three terminations ; as, magnitudo, alti- 
twh, fortitude, aeritudo, from magnus, alius, fortis, deer. Polysyllabic adjectives 
in tus, generally form their abstracts by adding udo instead of itudo to their root; 
as, eonsuetudo, from consuetus. 

4. Abstracts in ia (equivalent to the English ce or cy,) are for the most part 
formed from adjectives of one termination ; as, dementia, constantia, impuden- 
tia, from elemens, constans, impudens. But some adjectives in us and er ,including 
verbals in cundus, likewise form their verbals in ia; as, miseria, angustia, facun- 
dia, from miser, angustus, facundus. 

5. Abstracts in itia and ities are formed from adjectives in us and is ; as, 
justitia, tristiiia, duritia, and durities, segnitia and segnities, from Justus, tristis, du- 
rus, and segnis. 

6. A few abstracts are formed in edo, and a few in imonia ; and sometimes 
two or more abstracts of different terminations are formed from the same adjec- 
tive ; as, aeritas, acritudo, acredo, and acrimonia, from deer. In such case those 
in itudo and imonia seem to be more intensive in signification than those in 
itas. 

Remark. Adjectives, as distinguished from the abstracts which 
are formed from them, are called concretes. 

III. Feom Verbs. 
§ 102. Nouns derived from verbs are called verbal nouns. 
The following are the principal classes : — 

1. Abstract nouns expressing the action or condition denoted by a verb, es- 
pecially by a neuter verb, are formed by annexing w to their first root ; as, 
am<>r, love ; favor, favor ; mceror, grief ; splendor, brightness ; from dmo, fdveo, 
mozreo, and splendeo. 

2. (a.) Abstracts are also formed from many verbs by annexing ium to the 
first or to the third root ; as, colloquium, a conference ; gaudium, joy ; exor- 
dium, a beginning ; exitium, destruction ; solatium, consolation ; from colloquor, 
gaudeo, exordior, exeo and solor. 

3. Some verbal abstracts are formed by annexing ela, imonia, or imdnium, to 
the first root of the verb ; as, querela and querimonia, a complaint ; suadela, 
persuasion ; from queror and suadeo. 

4. (a.) The terminations men and mentum, added to the first root of the 
verb, generally with a connecting vowel, denote the thing to which the action 
belongs, both actively and passively, or a means for the performance of the ac- 
tion ; as, yW/zien from fulgeo, flumen from fluo, agmen from ago, soldmen from 
solor, documentum from ddeeo, blandimentum from blandior. 

{b.) The final consonant of the root is often dropped, and the preceding and 
connecting vowels contracted into one syllable ; &s,dgo, (dgimen,) agmen; fdveo, 
(fdvimentum,) f omentum. 



60 COMPOSITION OF NOUNS. § 103. 

(c.) Some words of this class have no primitive verb in use ; as, atramenium, 
ink; but, in this case, the connecting vowel seems to imply its reference to such 
a verb as atrdre, to blacken. 

5. (a.) The terminations alum, bulum, culum; brum, crura, trum, annexed to 
the first root of a verb, denote an instrument for performing the act expressed 
by the verb, or a place for its performance ; as, cmgulum, operculum, venabulum, 
ventildbrum, fulcrum, spectrum, from cingo, operio, venor, ventilo, fulcio, specio. 

(b.) Sometimes culum is contracted into clum ; as, vinclum for vinculum. 
Sometimes, also, s is inserted before trum; as, rostrum, from rodo, and a con- 
necting vowel is placed before this and some of the other terminations ; as, 
ardtrum, stabulum, cubiculum, from dro, sto, and cubo. 

(c.) Some words of this kind are formed from nouns ; as, acetabulum, a vin- 
egar cruet ; turibulum, a censer ; from acetum and tus. 

6. (a.) Nouns formed by adding or and rix to the third root of the verb, de- 
note respectively the male and female agent of the action expressed by the verb ; 
as, adjutor, adjuirix, an assistant ; fautor, fautrix, a favorer ; victor, victrix, a 
conqueror ; from adjuvo (adjut-), fdveo (faut-), vinco (vict-). They are often like- 
wise used as adjectives. The feminine form is less common than the mascu- 
line, and when the third root of the verb ends in s, the feminine is sometimes 
formed in trix; as, tondeo (tons-) tonstrix. 

(b.) Some nouns in tor are formed immediately from other nouns ; as, viator, 
a traveller ; janitor, a door-keeper ; from via and janua. In meretrix from mereo, 
i of the third root becomes e. 

(c.) The agent of a few verbs is denoted by the terminations a and o annexed 
to the first root ; as, convlva, a guest ; advena, a stranger ; scrlba, a scribe ; 
erro, a vagrant ; Ubo, a drunkard; comedo, a glutton, from convlvo, advenio, etc. 

7. Many abstract nouns are formed by annexing io and us (gen. us) to the 
third root of a verb; as, actio, an action ; lectio, reading ; from ago (act-), lego 
(lect-); — cantus, singing ; visus, sight ; usus, use; from cdno (cant-), video (vis-), 
utor (us-). 

Remark 1. Nouns of both forms, and of like signification, are frequently de- 
rived from the same verb ; as, concursio and concursus, a running together ; motio 
and motus, etc. 

Rem. 2. Nouns formed by adding the termination ura to the third root of 
a verb, sometimes have the^same signification as those in io and us, and some- 
times denote the result of an action; &s,positura, position; vinctura, a binding 
together ; from pono, and vincio ; and the termination ela has sometimes the 
same meaning; as, querela, complaint ; loquela, speech, from queror and Idquor. 

Note. One of these forms is generally used to the exclusion of the others, and when 
two or more are found, they are usually employed in somewhat different senses. 

8. The termination orium, added to the third root of a verb, denotes the place 
where the action of the verb is performed; as, auditorium, a ]ecture-room; con- 
ditorium, a repository ; from audio and condo. 

COMPOSITION OF NOUNS. 

§ 103. Compound nouns are formed variously : — 

1. Of two nouns; as, rupicapra, a wild goat, of rupes and capra. In some 
words, compounded of two nouns, the former is a genitive ; as, senatusconsultum, 
a decree of the senate; jurisconsultus, a lawyer; in others, both parts are de- 
clined; as, respublica,jusjurandum. See § 91. 

2. Of a noun and a verb ; as, artifex, an artist, of ars and fdcio; jidl- 
cen, a harper, ofjides and cdno; agricdla, a husbandman, of dger and cdlo. 



§ 104. ADJECTIVES. 61 

3. Of an adjective and a noun ; as, ozquinoctium, the equinox, of ozquus and 
noz; millepeda, a millepede, of mille and pes. 

In duumvir, triumvir, decemvir, centumvir, the numeral adjective is in the 
genitive plural. 

Remark 1. When the former part of a compound word is a noun or an adjec- 
tive, it usually ends in i ; as, artifex, rupicajwa, agricdla, etc. If the second 
word begins with a vowel, an elision takes place ; as, quinquennium, of quinque 
and annus ; magnanimus, of magnus and animus. 

4. Of an adverb and a noun ; as, nefas, wickedness ; nemo, nobody; of ne, fas, 
and hdmo. So biduum, of bis and dies. 

6. Of a preposition and a noun : as, incuria, want of care, of in and cura. So 
intervallum, an interval ; pracordia, the diaphragm ; proverbium, a proverb ; sub- 
sellium, a low seat ; superficies, a surface. 

Rem. 2. When the former part is a preposition, its final consonant is sometimes 
changed,to adapt it to that which follows it : as, ignobilis, illepidus, imprudeniia, 
irrumpo, of in and nobilis, lejridus, etc. See § 196. 



ADJECTIVES. 

§ 10 4. An adjective is a word which qualifies or limits the 
meaning of a substantive. 

Adjectives may be divided, according to their signification, into 
various classes ; as denoting, 

1. Character or quality ; as, bonus, good ; albus, white ; amicus, friendly. 

2. State or condition ; as, felix, happy; (fives, rich. 

3. Possession; as, herllis, a master's; patrius, a father's. 

4. Quantity ; as, magnus, great ; totus, entire ; parvus, small. 

5. Number; as, unus, one; secundus, second; tot, so many; quot, as many. 
These are called numerals. 

6. Time; as, annuus, yearly; hesternus, of yesterday; blmus, of two years; 
trimestris, of three months. 

7. Place; as, altus, high; vicinus, near; a?rius, aerial; terrestris, terrestrial. 

8. Material; as, aureus, golden; fagineus, beechen; terrenus, earthen. 

9. Part ; as, nullus, no one ; aliquis, some one. These are called partitives. 

10. Country; as, Romdnus, Roman; Arplnas of Arplnum. These are called 
patrials. 

11. Diminution; as, parvulus ; from parvus, small ; mis tllus, from miser, miser- 
able. These are called diminutives. 

12. Amplification ; as, vinosus and vinolentus, much given to wine ; auritus, 
having long ears. These are called amplijicatives. 

13. Relation ; as, diidus, desirous of ; memor, mindful of ; insuetus. These 
are called relatives. 

14. Interrogation ; as, quantus ? how great ; qualis t of what kind ; quot ? how 
many? quotus? of what number? These are called interrogatives ; and, when 
not used interrogatively, they are called correlatives. 

15. Specification; as, talis, such; tantus, so great; tot, so many. These are 
called demonstratives. 



62 ADJECTIVES FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. § 105. 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 10*5. 1. Adjectives are declined like substantives, and are 
either of the first and second declensions, or of the third only. 

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DE- 
CLENSIONS. 

2. The masculine of adjectives belonging to the first and second 
declensions, ends either in us or in er. The feminine and neuter are 
formed respectively by annexing a and um to the root of the mascu- 
line. The masculine in us is declined like dominus; that in er like 
gener or ager; the feminine always like musa ; and the neuter like 
regnum. 

Remark 1. The masculine of one adjective, sdtur, -ura, -urum, full, ends in 
tir, and is declined like gener. 









Bonus, good. 










Singular. 






Masc. 




Fern. 


Neut. 


N. 


bo'-nus, 




bo'-na, 


bo'-num, 


G. 


bo'-ni, 




bo'-nae, 


bo'-ni, 


JD. 


bo'-no, 




bo'-nae, 


bo'-no, 


Ac. 


bo'-niim, 




bo'-nam, 


bo'-num, 


V. 


bo'-ne, 




bo'-na, 


bo'-num, 


Ab. 


bo'-no. 

• 




bo'-na. 

Plural. 


bo'-no. 


N. 


bo'-ni, 




bo'-nae, 


bo'-na, 


G. 


bo-no'-rum, 


bo-na'-rum, 


bo-no'-rum, 


D. 


bo'-nis, 




bo'-nis, 


bo'-nis, 


Ac. 


bo'-nos, 




bo'-nas, 


bo'-na, 


V. 


bo'-ni, 




bo'-nae, 


bo'-na, 


Ab. 


bo'-nis. 




bo'-nis. 


bo'-nis. 




In like manner decline 




Al'-tus, high. 


Fi' 


-dus, faithful. 


Lon'-gus, long. 


A-va'-rus, 


covetous. 


Im 


'-pro-bus, ivicked. 


Ple'-nus, full. 


Be-nig'-nus, kind. 


In- 


I'-quus, unjust. 


Tac'-I-tus, silent. 



Rem. 2. Like bonus are also declined all participles in us ; as, 

A-ma'-tus. Am-a-tfiZ-rus. A-man^dus. 

Rem. 3. The masculine of the vocative singular of adjectives in us is some- 
times like the nominative ; as, vir forth clique amicus. Hor. Meus has both 
mi and meus. 

Rem. 4. The genitive plural of distributive numerals ends commonly in Urn 
instead of arum ; as, crassitudo bintlm digitorum. Plin. 



§ 106 ADJECTIVES — FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 63 
3. Tener, tender. 









Singular. 






Masc. 




Fern. 


Neut. 


N. 


te'-ner, 




ten'-e-ra, 


ten'-e-rum, 


G. 


ten'-e-ri, 




ten'-e-rae, 


ten'-e-ri, 


D. 


ten'-e-ro, 




ten'-e-rae, 


ten'-e-ro, 


Ac. 


ten'-e-rum, 


ten'-e-ram, 


ten'-e-riim, 


V. 


te'-ner, 




ten'-e-ra, 


ten'-e-riim, 


Ab. 


ten'-e-ro. 




ten'-e-ra. 
Plural. 


ten'-e-ro. 


N. 


ten'-e-rl, 




ten'-e-rse, 


ten'-e-ra, 


G. 


ten-e-ro'-rum, 


ten-e-ra'-riim, 


ten-e-ro'-rum, 


D. 


ten'-e-ris, 




ten'-e-ris, 


ten'-e-ris, 


Ac. 


ten'-e-ros, 




ten'-e-ras, 


ten'-e-ra, 


V. 


ten'-e-ri, 




ten'-e-raa, 


ten'-e-ra, 


Ab. 


ten'-e-ris. 




ten'-e-ris. 


ten'-e-ris. 




In like manner are declined 


As'-per, rough 




La 


-cer, torn. 


Pros'-per, prosp 


Ex'-ter, foreign. 


Li' 


-ber, free. 


Sa'-tur, full. 


Gib'-ber, crook-backed. 


MI' 


-ser, wretched. 





So also alter, except in the genitive and dative singular (see § 107), semtfer, 
and the compounds of gero and few ; as, laniger, qpifer. 

Note. Prosper is less frequent than prosperus, and exter is scarcely used 
in the nominative singular masculine. 

§ 100. The other adjectives in er drop e in declension ; as, 







Piger, slothful. 








Singular. 






Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. 


pi'-ger, 


pi'-gra, 


pi'-grum, 


G. 


pi'-gri, 


pi'-grae, 


pi'-gri, 


D. 


pi'-gro, 


pi'-grae, 


pi'-gro, 


Ac. 


pi'-grum, 


pi'-gram, 


pi'-grum, 


V. 


pi'-ger, 


pi'-gra, 


pi'-grum, 


Ab. 


pi'-gro. 


Pi'-gra. 
Plural. 


pi'-gro. 


N. 


F-gri> 


pi'-grae, 


pi'-gra, 


G. 


pi-gro'-rum, pi-gra'-rum, 


pi-gro'-rum, 


D. 


pi'-gris, 


pi -gris, 


pi'-gris, 


Ac. 


pi'-gros, 


pi'-gras, 


pi'-gra, 


V. 


pi'-gri, 


pi'-grae, 


pi'-gra, 


Ab. 


pi -gris. 


pi'-gris. 


pi'-gris. 



64 ADJECTIVES THIRD DECLENSION. § 107, 108. 

In like manner decline 

JE'-ger, sick. Ma'-cer, lean. Sca'-ber, rough. 

A'-ter, black. Nr-ger, black. Si-nis'-ter, left. 

Cre'-ber, frequent. Pur-cher, fair. Te'-ter, foul. 

Glauber, smooth. Rubber, red. VaZ-fer, crafty. 

In'-te-ger, entire. Sa/-cer, sacred. 

Dexter, right, has -tra, -trum, and less frequently -tera, -terum. 

§ 107. Six adjectives in us, and three in er, have their genitive 
singular in ius, and their dative in I, in all the genders : — 

Alius, another. Tdtus, whole. Alter, -tera, -terum, the other. 

Nullus, no one. Ullus, any. Uter, -tra, -trum, which of the two. 

Solus, alone. Unus, one. Neuter, -tra, -trum, neither. 

To these may be added the other compounds of uter, — namely, uterque, each 
of two ; utercumque, uterllbet, and utervis, which of the two you please ; gen. 
utriusque, etc. — also, alteruter, one of two ; gen. alierutrius, and sometimes alter- 
rius utrius ; dat. alterutri. So alteruterque, and unusquisque. See § 138, 4. 

Nullus, solus, tdtus, ullus, and unus are thus declined : — 
Singular. 





Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


K 


u'-niis, 


u'-na, 


u'-num, 


G. 


u-ni'-us,* 


u-ni'-us, 


u-ni'-us, 


D. 


u'-nl, 


u'-ni, 


u'-nl, 


Ac. 


u'-num, 


u'-nam, 


u'-num, 


V. 


u'-ne, 


u'-na, 


u'-num, 


Ah. 


u'-no. 


u'-na. 


u'-no. 



The plural is regular, like that of bonus. 

Remakk 1. . Alius has aliud in the nominative and accusative singular neu- 
ter, and in the genitive alius, contracted for cdiius. 

Rem. 2. Except in the genitive and dative singular, alter is declined like tener, 
and uter and neuter like piger. 

Rem. 3. Some of these adjectives, in early writers, and occasionally even in 
Cicero, Caesar, and Nepos, form their genitive and dative regularly, like bdnus, 
tener, or piger. 

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

§ 108- Some adjectives of the third declension have three termi- 
nations in the nominative singular ; some two ; and others only one. 

I. Those of three terminations end in er, masc. ; is, fern. ; and e, 
neut. ; and are thus declined : — ■ 

- Acer, sharp. 
Singular. 





Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. 


a'-cer, 


a'-cris, 


a'-cre, 


G. 


a'-cris, 


a'-cris, 


a'-cris, 


D. 


a'-cri, 


a'-cri, 


a'-cri, 


Ac. 


a'-crem, 


a'-crem, 


a'-cre, 


V. 


a'-cer, 


a'-cris, 


a'-cre, 


Ab. 


a'-cri. 


a'-cri. 


a'-cri. 



* See § 15. 



§ 109, 110. ADJECTIVES THIRD DECLENSION. 65 

Plural. 



N. 


a'-cres, 


a'-cres, 


a'-cri-a, 


G. 


a'-cri-um, 


a'-cri-um, 


a'-cri-um, 


D. 


ac'-ri-bus, 


ac'-ri-bus, 


ac'-ri-bus, 


Ac. 


a'-cres, 


a'-cres, 


a'-cri-a, 


V. 


a'-cres, 


a'-cres, 


a'-cri-a, 


Ab. 


ac'-ri-bus. 


ac'-ri-biis. 


ac'-ri-bus. 



In like manner are declined the following ; — 

AK-acer, cheerful. Pa-lus'-ter, marshy. Sil-ves'-ter, woody. 

Cam-pes'-ter, champaign. Pe-des'-ter, on foot. Ter-res'-ter, terrestrial. 

Cel'-e-ber, famous. Pu'-ter, rotten. Vol'-u-cer, winged. 

E-ques'-ter, equestrian. Sa-lu'-ber, wholesome. 

To these add names of months in -her, used as adjectives ; as, October, etc. 
(cf. § 71), and celer, swift, which has ceteris, celere ; gen. ceUris, etc. 

Remark 1. The termination er was anciently sometimes feminine ; as, voMcer 
fama. Petr. : and, on the other hand, the masculine often ends in is; as, 
collis silvestris, Cass. 

Rem. 2. Volucer has um in the genitive plural. 

§ 100. II. Adjectives of two terminations end in is for the mas- 
culine and feminine, and e for the neuter, except comparatives, which 
end in or and us. 

Those in is, e, are thus declined : — 





Mitis mild. 






Singular. 






Plural. 


M. # F. 


N. ^ 






M.J-F. ^N. ' 


N. mi'-tis, 


mi'-te, 




N. 


mi'-tes, mit'-i-a,* 


G. mi'-tis, 


mi'-tis, 




G. 


mit'-i-um,* mit'-i-iim, 


D. mi'-ti, 


mi'-ti, 




D. 


mit'-i-bus, mit'-i-bus, 


Ac. mi'-tem, 


mi'-te, 




Ac. 


mi'-tes, mit'-i-a, 


V. mi'-tis, 


mi'-te, 




V. 


mi'-tes, mit'-i-a, 


Ab. mi'-ti. 


mi'-ti. 




Ab. 


mit'-i-bus. mit'-i-bus. 




In like 


manner decline 


AgM-lis, active. 


Dul'-cis 


, sweet. 




In-coF-u-mis, safe. 


Bre'-vis, short. 


For / -tis, 


brave. 




Mi-rab'-i-lis, wonderful. 


Cru-de'-lis, cruel. 


Gra'-vis 


, heavy. 




Om'-nis, all. 



Tres, three, is declined like the plural of mitis. 
Note. Several adjectives of this class have forms also in us, a, um. See § 116. 

§ 110. (a.) All comparatives, except plus, more, are thus de- 
clined : — 

* Pronounced mish'-t-a, etc. See } 12. 
6* 



66 



ADJECTIVES THIRD DECLENSION. 



§111. 





Mitior,* milder. 




Singular. 






M. fF. 


. &„ 


N. 


mit'-i-or, 


mit'-i-iis, 


G. 


mit-i-6'-ris, 


mit-i-6'-ris, 


D. 


mit-i-o'-ri, 


mit-i-o'-ri, 


Ac. 


mit-i-o'-rem, 


mit'-i-us, 


V. 


mit'-i-or, 


mit'-i-us, 


Ab. 


mit-i-o'-re, or -ri. 
Plural. 


mit-i-o'-re, or -ri. 




M. f F. 


K 


N. 


mit-i-o'-res, 


mit-i-o'-ra, 


G. 


mit-i-o'-rum, 


niit-i-o'-rum, 


D. 


mit-i-or'-i-bus, 


mit-i-or'-i-bus, 


Ac. 


mit-i-o'-res, 


mit-i-o'-ra, 


V. 


mit-i-o'-res, 


mit-i-5'-ra, 


Ab. 


mit-i-or'-i-bus. 


mit-i-or'-i-bus. 



In like manner decline 

DuF-ci-or, sweeter. Gra'-vi-or, heavier. 

Fe-lic'-i-or, happier. Pru-den'-ti-or, morepru- 

Fe-ro'-ci-or, fiercer, dent. 



AF-ti-or, higher. 

Au-da'-ci-or, bolder. 

Bre'-vi-or, shorter. 

Cru-de'-li-or, more cruel. For'-ti-or, braver. TJ-be'-ri-or, more fertile. 

Plus, more, is thus declined : — 



Singular. 
N. 
N. plus, 
G. plu'-ris, 

D '. ' 

Ac. plus, 

V. , 

Ab. (plu'-re, obs.) 



Plural. 



M. # F. 

N. plu'-res, 

G. plu'-ri-um, 

D. plu'-rl-bus, 

Ac. plu'-res, 

V. , 

Ab. plu'-ri-bus. 



N. 
plu'-ra, rarely plu'-ri-a, 
plu'-ri-um, 
plu'-ri-bus, 
plu'-ra, 

plu'i-i-bus. 



So, but iu the plural number only, complures, a great many. 

§ 111. HT. Other adjectives of the third declension have but 
one termination in the nominative singular for all genders. They all 
end in I, r, s, or x, and increase in the genitive. 

They are thus declined : — 



Felix, 


happy. 


Singular 




M.frF. 




N : 


N. fe'-lix, 




fe'-lix, 


G. fe-li'-cis, 




fe-li'-cis, 


D. fe-li'-ci, 




fe-li'-ci, 


Ac. fe-li'-cem, 




fe'-lix, 


V. fe'-lix, 




fe'-lix, 


Ab. fe-li'-ce, or -ci. 




fe-li'-ce, or -ci. 



* Pronounced mi$h'-e,-or, etc. See § 12. 



§112. ADJECTIVES OBLIQUE CASES. 67 

Plural. 





M.&F. 


N. i 


N. 


fe-li'-ces, 


fe-lic'-i-a,* 


G. 


fe-lic'-i-iim,* 


fe-lic'-i-iim, 


D. 


fe-lic'-i-bus, 


fe-lic'-i-bus, 


Ac. 


fe-li'-ces, 


fe-lic'-i-a, 


V. 


fe-li'-ces, 


fe-lic'-i-a, 


Ab. 


fe-lic'-i-bus. 


fe-lic'-i-bus. 




Prgesens, present 




Singular 






M. §• F. 


' N. 


N. 


prae'-sens, 


prae'-sens, 


G. 


prae-sen'-tis, 


prae-sen'-tis, 


D. 


prae-sen'-ti, 


prae-sen'-ti, 


Ac. 


prae-sen'-tem, 


prae'-sens, 


V. 


prae'-sens, 


prae'-sens, 


Ab. 


prae-sen'-te, or-ii. 

Plural. 


prae-sen'-te, or -U 


N. 


prae-sen'-tes, 


prae-sen'-ti-a,f 


G. 


prae-sen'-ti-um, 


prae-sen'-ti-um, 


D. 


prae-sen'-ti-bus, 


prae-sen'-ti-bus, 


Ac. 


prae-sen'-tes, 


prae-sen'-ti-a, 


V. 


prae-sen'-tes, 


prae-sen'-ti-a, 


Ab. 


prse-sen'-ti-bus. 


prae-sen'-ti-bus. 



In like manner decline 

Au'-dax, -acis, bold. Par'-ti-ceps, -ipis, par- SolMers, -tis, shrewd. 

Com'-pos, -otis, master of. ticipant. Sos'-pes, -itis, safe. 

Fe'-rox, -ocis, fierce. Prae'-pes, -etis, swift. Sup'-plex, -icis, sup- 

In'-gens, -tis, huge. Pru'-dens, -tis, prudent. pliant. 

Remark. All present participles are declined like praisens ; as, 
A'-mans. Mo'-nens. Re'-gens. CV-pi-ens. Au'-di-ens. 
Note. A few adjectives of one termination have redundant forms in us, a, 
urn; see § 116. 

Rules for the Oblique Cases of Adjectives of the 
Third Declension. 

GENITIVE SINGULAR. 

§ 119. Most adjectives of the third declension form their geni- 
tive singular like nouns of the same termination. 

The following may here be specified : — 

1. Of those in es (cf. § 73) some have -etis; as, hebes, perpes, prcepes, and teres; 
— inquies and locuples have -His ; — some have -itis ; as, dives, sospes, and super- 
stes ; — some have -idis ; as, dises, and reses ; — bipes, and tripes have -pedis ;—pubes 
has puberis, and impubes, impuberis and impubis. 

* Pronounced fe-lish'-e^um, etc. See § 10, Exc, and g 7., 3, (p.) 
t Pronounced pre-zen'-she-a, eto. 



68 ADJECTIVES OBLIQUE CASES. § 113, 114, 

2. Compos and impos have -dtis, and exos, exossis. — Exlex has exlegis, pernox 
has pernocUs (§ 78), prcecox, prcecdcis. and redux, reducis. — Calebs has caslibis, 
(§ 77) ; inter cus, inter cutis, and velus, veteris. Those in ceps which are compounds 
of caput, have -cipitis; as, anceps, prceceps (§ 78, 1); but the compounds of ceps 
from capio have -ipis ; as, particeps, participis. — Those in cors, compounds of 
cor, have -cordis; as, concors, concm-dis (§ 71, Exc. 2). — Memor and immemor 
have -dris. 

ABLATIVE SINGULAK. 

§ 113. 1. Adjectives which have e in the nominative singular neu- 
ter have only i in the ablative. 

Exc. 1. The ablatives bimestre, cceleste, sxidperenne are found in Ovid, and 
cognomine in Virgil. 

2. Comparatives and participles in ns, when used as participles, 
especially in the ablative absolute, have rather e than i; but parti- 
cipial adjectives in ns have rather i than e. 

3. Adjectives of one termination have either e or i in the ablative. 

Exc. 2. The following adjectives of one termination have only e in the abla- 
tive : — 

Bicorpor, bipes, cselebs, compos, deses, discolor, hospes, impos, impubes, ju- 
vfinis, locuples, pauper, princeps, puber or pubes, senex, sospes, superstes, 
tricorpor, tricuspis, and tripes. 

Exc. 3 . The following adjectives of one termination have only i in the abla- 
tive : — 

Anceps, concors, discors, hebes, immemor, Iners, ingens, inops, memor, par, 
praeceps, recens, repens, vigil, and most adjectives in x, especially those in 
plex. 

Eem. 1. Jnerte occurs in Ovid, recente in Ovid and Catullus, and prcedpe in 

Ennius. 

Eem. 2. Prcesens, when used of things, makes the ablative in i; when used 
of persons, it has e. 



NOMINATIVE, ACCUSATIVE, AND GENITIVE PLUEAL. 

§ 114L. 1. The neuter of the nominative and accusative plural 
ends in ia, and the genitive plural of all genders in ium ; but compar- 
atives in or, with vetus, old, and uber, fertile, have a, and um. 

2. The accusative plural of masculine and feminine adjectives, whose geni- 
tive plural ends in ium, anciently ended in Is or eis, instead of es. Cf. § 85, Exc. 1. 

Exc. 1. Those adjectives that have only e in the ablative singular, have um 
in the genitive plural. 

Exc. 2. Compounds of facio, cdpio, and of such nouns as make um in their 
genitive plural, with celer, compar, cicur, dives, memor, immemor, prapes, sup- 
plex, and vigil, make their genitive plural in um. 

Exc. 3. Dis, locuples, sons, and insons have either um or ium. The poets and 
the later prose writers sometimes form the genitive plural of other adjectives 
and of participles in ns, by syncope, in um, instead of ium; as, cceleslum, Virg. 
Ovid, etc. 



§ 115, 116. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 69 

IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 

§ llo. Some adjectives are defective, others redundant. 
DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

1. («.) Many adjectives denoting personal qualities or attributes 
want the neuter gender, unless when occasionally joined to a neuter 
substantive used figuratively. Such are the following : — 

Bicorpor, bipes, caelebs, compos, consors, degener, dives, impos, impubes, 
industrius, mops, insons, invitus, juvenis, locuples, memor, pauper, particeps, 
princeps, puber, or pubes, redux, senex, sous, sospes, superstes, supplex, tri- 
corpor, vigil. 

(b.) Victrix and ultrix are feminine in the singular, seldom neuter; in the 
plural, they are feminine and neuter. Such verbals partake of the nature both 
of substantives and adjectives, and correspond to masculines in tor. See $ 
102, 6, (a.) 

2. The following want the genitive plural, and are rarely used 
in the neuter gender : — 

Concolor, deses, hebes, perpes, reses, teres, versicolor. 

3. The names of months, which are properly adjectives, have only 
the masculine and feminine genders. 

4. Some adjectives are wholly indeclinable. 

Such are frugi, temperate; nequam, worthless; sat or satis, sufficient; the 
plurals aliquot, tdt, qudt, totidem, quotquot ; and the cardinal numbers from quatu- 
or to centum inclusive, and also mille. Cf. § 118, 1, and 6, (b.) 

5. The following adjectives are used only in certain cases : — 

Billcem, ace. ; doubly-tissued. Cetera, ceterum, the rest, wants the nom. sing, 
masc. Decemplicem, ace. : tenfold. Exspes, nom. ; hopeless. Inquies, nom. ; 
-etem, ace. ; -ete, abl. ; restless. Mactus, owuZmacte, nom. ; macte, ace. ; honored; 
— macti, nom. plur. Necesse, andnecessum,no7n., ace. ; necessary. Plus, nom., 
ace. ; pluris, gen. ; more ;—pl. plures, -a, nom. ace. ; -ium gen. ; Ibus, dat., abl. 
Cf. § 110. Postera, posterum, coming after, wants the nom. sing. masc. Potis, 
nom. sing, and/??., all genders; able. Pote, nom. sing., for potest; possible. Sep- 
templicis, gen. ; -ce, abl. ; seven-fold. Slremps, and sirempse, nom. and ace. ; 
alike. Tantundem, nom. ace. ; tautidem, gen. ; tan tandem, ace. ; so much. 
Trilicem, ace. ; trebly-tissued ; trilices, nom. and ace. pi. 

REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES. 

§ 116. The following adjectives are redundant in termination 
and declension. Those marked r are more rarely used. 

Accllvis, and -us, r, ascending. Inquies, and -etus, restless. 

Auxiliaris, and -ius, auxiliary. Jocularis, and -ius, r, laughable. 

Bijiigis, and -us, yoked two together. Multijugis, r, and -us, yoked many to- 

Declivis, and -us, r, descending. gether. 

Exanlmis, and -us, r, lifeless. Opiilens, and -lentus, rich. 

Hilaris, and -us, cheerful. Prsecox, -coquis, and -coquus, early 

Imbecillis, r, and -us, weak. ripe. 

Impubes, and -is, r, -is or -eris, not Procllvis, and -us, r, sloping. 

grown up. Quadrijiigis, and -us, yoked four tch 

Inermis, and -us, r, unarmed. gether. 

Infrenis, and -us, unbridled. Semianlmis, and -us, half alive. 



70 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



§117. 



Semiermis, and -us, half armed. 
Semisomnis, and -us, r, half asleep. 
Singularis, and -ius, single. 



Sublimis, and -us, r, high. 
Unammis, r, and -us, unanimous- 
Violens, r, and -lentus, violent. 



To these may be added some adjectives in er and is ; as, saluber and -5m, 
ceJeoer and -bris. Cf. § 108, R. 1. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

§ 117. Numeral adjectives are divided into three principal 
classes — Cardinal, Ordinal, and Distributive. 

I. Cardinal numbers are those ■which simply denote the number of 
things, in answer to the question Quot ? ' How many ? ' They are, 

1. Unus, 

2. Duo, 

3. Tres, 

4. Quatuor, 
6. Quinque, 

6. Sex, 

7. Septem, 

8. Octo, 

9. Novem, 

10. Decern, 

11. Undecim, 

12. Duodechn, 

13. Tredecim, 

14. Quatuordeeim, 

15. Quindecim, 

16. Sedecim, or sexdecim, 

17. Septendecim, 

18. Octodecim, 

19. Novendecim, 

20. Viginti, 

21. Viginti unus, or ) 

unus et viginti, j 

22. Viginti duo, or ) 

duo et viginti, etc., j 
30. Triginta, 
40. Quadraginta, 
50. Quinquaginta, 
60. Sexaginta, 
70. Septuaginta, 
80. Octoginta, or octuaginta, 
90. Nonaginta, 

100. Centum, 

101. Centum unus, or ) 
centum et unus, etc., } 

200. Ducenti, -ae, a, 

800. Trecenti, etc., 

400. Quadringenti, 

500. Quingenti, 

600. Sexcenti, 

700. Septingenti, 

800. Octingenti, 

900. Nongenti, 
1000. Mille, 
2000. Duo millia, or ) 
bis mille, ) 



one. 


I. 


two. 


II. 


three. 


ni. 


four. 


nn. or iv. 


five. 


v. 


six. 


VI. 


seven. 


vn. 


eight. 


vni. 


nine. 


vnn. or ix. 


ten. 


X. 


eleven. 


XI. 


twelve. 


xn. 


thirteen. 


XIII. 


fourteen. 


XTTTT. or XIV. 


fifteen. 


XV. 


sixteen. 


XVI. 


seventeen. 


xvn. 


eighteen. 


xvm. 


nineteen. 


xvnn. or xix. 


twenty. 


XX. 


twenty-one. 


XXI. 


twenty-iwo. 


xxn. 


thirty. 


XXX. 


forty. 


XXXX. or XL. 


fifty- 


L. 


sixty. 


LX. 


seventy. 


LXX. 


eighty, 
ninety. 


LXXX. 


LXXXX. or XC. 


a hundred. 


C. 


a hundred and one. 


CI. 


two hundred. 


CC. 


three hundred. 


CCC. 


four hundred. 


CCCC, or CD. 


five hundred. 


10, or D. 


six hundred. 


IOC, or DC. 


seven hundred. 


IOCC, or DCC. 


eight hundred. 


IOCCC, or DCCC. 


nine hundred. 


IOCCCC, or DCCCC. 


a thousand. 


CIO, or M. 


two thousand. 


CIO CIO, or MM. 






§118. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



71 



Jive thousand. 


100. 


ten thousand. 


CCI00. 


fifty thousand. 


1000. 


a hundred thousand. 


CCCIOOO 



6000. Quinque millia, or 

quinquies mille, 

10000. Decern millia, or 

decies mille, 
60000. Quinquaginta millia, 

or quinquagies mille, 
100000. Centum millia, or ) 
centies mille, J 

§ 118. 1. The first three cardinal numbers are declined; from 
four to a hundred inclusive they are indeclinable ; those denoting 
hundreds are declined like the plural of bonus. 

For the declension of until and tres, see §§ 107 and 109. 

Duo is thus declined : — 

Plural 





M. 


F. 


N. 


K 


dii'-o, 


du'-a?, 


du'-o, 


G. 


du-o'-rum, 


du-a'-rum, 


du-5'-rum 


I). 


du-o'-bus, 


du-a'-bus, 


du-o'-bus, 


Ac. 


du'-os, or du'-o, 


du'-as, 


du'-o, 


V. 


du'-o, 


du'-ae, 


du'-o, 


Ab 


du-o'-bus. 


du-a'-bus. 


du-o'-bus. 



Remark 1. Duorum, duarum, are often contracted into duum, especially in 
compounds ; as, duumvir, and when joined with millium. — Ambo, both, which 
partakes of the nature of a numeral and of a pronoun, is declined like duo. 

2. The cardinal numbers, except unus and mille, are used in the 
plural only. 

Rem. 2. The plural of unus is used with nouns which have no singular, or 
whose singular has a different sense from the plural ; as, una nuptia, one mar- 
riage ; una castra, one camp. It is used also with nouns denoting several things 
considered as one whole ; as, una vestimenta, one suit of clothes. So, also, when 
it takes the signification of " alone" or " the same "; as, uni Vbii, the Ubians 
alone ; unis moribus vivere, — with the same manners. 

3. (a.} Thirteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, and nineteen, are often ex- 
pressed by two numbers, the greater of which usually precedes, united by et ; 
thus, decern et tres, decern et ndvem, or, omitting et, decern ndvem. Octodecim has 
no good authority. See infra, 4. 

(b.) From twenty to a hundred, the smaller number with et is put first, or 
the greater without et ; as, unus et viginti, or viginti unus. Above one hundred, 
the greater precedes, with or without et ; as, centum et unus, or centum unus ; 
trecenti sexaginta sex, or trecenti et sexaginta sex. Et is never twice used, but 
the poets sometimes take ac, atque, or que, instead of et. 

4. For eighteen, twenty-eight, etc., and for nineteen, twenty-nine, etc. (ex- 
cepting sixty-eight, sixty-nine, and ninety-eight), a subtractive expression is 
more frequent than the additive form ; as, duodeviginti, two from twenty ; unde- 
viginti, one from twenty; duodetriginta, undetriginta, etc. Neither un (unus) 
nor duo can be declined in these combinations. The additive forms for thirty- 
eight, etc. to ninety-eight, and for forty-nine, etc. to ninety-nine, except those 
for sixty-nine, seem not to occur. 

5. (a.) Thousands are generally expressed by prefixing the smaller cardinal 
numbers to millia; as, decern millia, ten thousand; ducenta millia, two hundred 
thousand. As there is in Latin no unit above mille, a thousand, the higher unit3 
of modern numeration are expressed by prefixing the numeral adverbs to tho 



72 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. § 119. 

combination centena millia ; as, decies centena millia, a million; centies centena 
millia, ten millions. In such combinations centena millia is sometimes omitted ; 
as, decies, scil. centena millia. 

(b.) The poets sometimes make use of numeral adverbs in expressing smaller 
numbers ; as, bis sex for duodecim ; bis centum for ducenti, etc. 

6. Mille is used either as a substantive or as an adjective. 

(a.) When taken substantively, it is indeclinable in the singular number, 
and, in the plural, has millia, mitliwn, millibus, etc. ; as, mille hominum, a thou- 
sand men ; duo millia hominum, two thousand men, etc. When mille is a sub- 
stantive, the things numbered are put in the genitive, as in the preceding 
examples, "unless a declined numeral comes between; as,habuit tria millia tre- 
centos milites. 

(b.) As an adjective, mille is plural only, and indeclinable: as, mille homines 
a thousand men ; cum bis mille hominibus, with two thousand men. 

7. Capitals were used by the Eomans to mark numbers. The letters em- 
ployed for this purpose were C. I. L. V. X., which are, therefore, called Nu- 
meral Letters. I. denotes one ; V.five; X.ten; L. fifty ; and C. a hundred. By 
the various combinations of these five letters, all the different numbers are ex- 



(a.) The repetition of a numeral letter repeats its value. Thus, II. signifies 
two; III. three; XX. twenty ; XXX. thirty ; CC. two hundred, etc. But V. and 
L. are never repeated. 

(6.) When a letter of a less value is placed before a letter of a greater value, 
the less takes away its value from the greater ; but being placed after, it adds 
its value to the greater; thus, 



IV. Four. 


V. 


Five. 


VI. 


Six. 


IX. Nine. 


X. 


Ten. 


XI. 


Eleven. 


XL. Forty. 


L. 


Fifty. 


LX. 


Sixty. 


XC. Ninety. 


C. 


A hundred. 


ex. 


A hundred and ten. 



(c.) A thousand was marked thus, CIO, which, in later times, was contracted 
into M. Five hundred is marked thus, 10, or, by contraction, D. 

(d.) The annexing of the apostrophus or inverted C (0) to 10 makes its value 
ten times greater; thus, 100 marks five thousand; and 10 DO, fifty thousand. 

(e.) The prefixing of C, together with the annexing of 0, to the number CIO, 
makes its value ten times greater; thus, CCIOO denotes ten thousand; and 
CCCI000, a hundred thousand. The Romans, according to Pliny, proceeded 
no further in this method of notation. If they had occasion to express a larger 
number, they did it by repetition; thus, CCCI000, CCCIOOO, signified two 
hundred thousand, etc. 

(f.) We sometimes find thousands expressed by a straight line drawn over 
the top of the numeral letters. Thus, III. denotes three thousand; X., ttn 
thousand. 

§ 119. LI. Ordinal numbers are such as denote order or rank, 
and answer to the question, Quotus ? Which of the numbers ? They 
all end in us, and are declined like bonus ; a,s,primus, first ; secundus, 
second. 

III. Distributive numbers are those which indicate an equal division 
among several persons or things, and answer to the question, Quoteni? 
How many apiece ? as, singuli, one by one, or, one to each ; bini, two 
by two, or two to each, etc. They are always used in the plural, and 
are declined like the plural of bonus, except that they usually have 
Cm instead of drum in the genitive plural. Cf. § 105, R. 4. 



§ 120. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



73 



The following table contains the ordinal and distributive numbers, and the 
corresponding numeral adverbs, which answer to the question, Quoties ? How 
many times 7 — 



Ordinal. 
Primus, Jirst. 
Secundus, second. 
Tertius, third. 
Quartus, fourth. 
Quintus,^/i!A. 
Sextus, sixth. 
Septimus, seventh. 
Octavus, eighth. 
Nonus, ninth. 
Decimus, tenth, etc. 
Undecimus. 
Duodecimus. 
Tertius decimus. 
Quartus decimus. 
Quintus decimus. 
Sextus decimus. 
Septimus decimus. 
Octavus decimus. 
Nonus decimus. 
Vicesimus, or ) 

vigesimus. } 
Vicesimus primus. 
Vicesimus secundus. 
Tricesimus, or ) 

trigesimus. ) 
Quadragesimus. 
Quinquagesimus. 
Sexagesimus. 
Septuagesimus. 
Octogesimus. 
Nonagesimus. 
Centesimiis. 
Dilcentesimus. 



4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 

20. 

21. 
22. 

30. 

40. 

60. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 
100. 
200. 



300. Trecentesimus. 



Distributive. 
Singuli, one by one. 
Bini, two by two. 
Terni, or trlui. 
Quaterni. 
Quini. 
Seni. 
Septeni. 
Octoni. 
Noveni. 
Deni. 
Undeni. 
Duodeni. 
Terni deni. 
Quaterni deni. 
Quini deni. 
Seni deni. 
Septeni deni. 
Octoni deni. 
Noveni deni. 

Viceni. 

Viceni singuli. 
Viceni bim, etc. 

Triceni. 

Quadrageni. 

Quinquageni. 

Sexageni. 

Septuageni. 

Octogeni. 

Nonageni. 

Centeni. 

Duceni. 



Numeral Adverbs. 

Semel, once. 

Bis, twice. 

Ter, thrice. 

Quater, four timet. 

Quinquies. 

Sexies. 

Septies. 

Octies. 

Novies. 

Decies. 

Undecies. 

Duodecies. 

Terdecies. 

Quatuordecies. 

Quindecies. 

Sedecies. 

Decies et septies. 

Duodevicies. 

Undevicies. 

Vicies. 

Semel et vicies. 
Bis et vicies, etc. 

Tricies. 

Quadragies. 

Quinquagies. 

Sexagies. 

Septuagies. 

Octogies. 

Nonagies. 

Centies. 

Ducenties. 



400. 

500. 
600. 
700. 
800. 
900. 

1000. 



Quadringentesimus. 

Quingentesimus. 

Sexcentesimus. 

Septingentesimus. 

Octingentesimus. 

Noagentesimus. 

Millesimus. 



( Trecenties, or ) 
\ tricenties. J 



2000. Bis millesimus. 



Treceni, or trecenteni. 

Quadringeni, or ) 

quadi'ingenteni. ) 
Quingeni. 

Sexceni, or sexcenteni. 
Septingeni. 
Octingeni. 
Nongeni. 
Milleni, or 

singula millia. 
Bis milleni, or ) 

bina millia. j 

8 -l^tf. 1. In the ordinals, instead of primus, prior is used, if only two 
are spoken of. Alter is often used for secundus. 

2. (a.) From thirteenth to nineteenth, the smaller number is usually put 
first, without et; as, tertius decimus, but sometimes the greater with or without 
et ; as, decimus et tertius, or decimus tertius. 

(&.) Twenty-first, thirty-first, etc., are often expressed by unus et vicesimus, 

unus et trieestmus, etc., one and twentieth, etc.; and twentv-second, etc., by 

| duo, or alter et vicesimus, etc., in which duo is not changed, "in the other com- 

j pound numbers, the larger precedes without et, or the smaller with et ; as, vicesir 

\ mus quartus, or quartus et vicesimus. 

7 



Quadringenties. 

Quingenties. 

Sexcenties. 

Septingenties. 

Octingenties. 

Noningenties. 

Millies. 
Bis millies. 



74 ADJECTIVES — COMPARISON. § 121, 122. 

(c.) For eighteenth, etc., to fifty-eighth, and for nineteenth, etc. to fifty-ninth, 
the subtractive forms, duodevicesimus, etc., and undevicesimus, etc., are often used. 

3. In the distributives, eighteen, thirty-eight, forty-eight, and nineteen and 
twenty-nine, are often expressed by the subtractives duodeviceni, etc., undevi- 
ceni, etc. 

4. (a.) Distributives are sometimes used by the poets for cardinal numbers; 
as, Una spictila, two darts. Virg. So likewise in prose, with nouns that want the 
singular; as, binae nuptim, two weddings. 

(b.) The singular of some distributives is used in the sense of multiplica- 
tives ; as , binus, twofold. So ternus, quinus, septenus. 

5. In the numeral adverbs, for the intermediate numbers 21, 22, etc., the 
larger number also may be put first, either with or without et; and for 
twenty-eight times and thirty-nine times, duodetricies and undequadragies are 
found. 

§ 121. To the preceding classes may be added the following : — 

1. Multiplicatives, which denote how many fold, in answer to the question, 
quotuplex t They all end in plex, and are declined like felix ; as, 

Simplex, single. Quinciiplex, Jivej old. 

Duplex, twofold, or double. Septemplex, sevenfold. 

Triplex, threefold. Decemplex, tenfold. 

Quadruplex, fourfold. Centuplex, a hundredfold. 

2. Proportionals, which denote how many times one thing is greater than 
another; as, duplus, a, um, twice as great; so triplus, quadruplus, octuplus, de- 
cuplus. They are generally found only in the neuter. 

3. Temporals, which denote time ; as, blmus, a, um, two years old ; so trlmus, 
quadrlmus, etc. Also, biennis, lasting two years, biennial; so quadriennis, quin- 
quennis, etc. So also, bimestris, of two months' continuance; trimestris, etc., 
biduus, etc. To these may be added certain nouns, compounds of annus and 
dies with the cardinal numbers ; as, biennium, triennium, etc., a period of two, 
etc. years;' biduum, triduum, etc., a period of two, etc. days. 

4. Adjectives in arius, derived from the distributives, and denoting of how 
many equal parts or units a thing consists ; as, binarius, of two parts ; ternarius, 
etc. 

5. Interrogates; as, quot, how many? qudtus, of what number? quoteni, 
how many each ? quoties, how many times ? Their correlatives are tot, totidem, 
so many ; aliquot, some ; which, with quot, are indeclinable ; and the adverbs, 
tolies, so often ; aliquoties, several times. 

6. Fractional expressions, which denote the parts of a thing. These are ex- 
pressed in Latin by pars with dimidia, tertia, quarta, etc. Thus, £, dimidia 
pars ; |, tertia pars, etc. When the number of parts into which a thing is 
divided exceeds by one only the parts mentioned, as in f , $, etc. the fraction is 
expressed simply by dues, tres, etc. partes, denoting two out of three, three out 
of four, etc. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

§122. 1. Adjectives maybe divided into two classes — those which 
denote a variable, and those which denote an invariable, quality or 
limitation. 

Thus, bdnus, good, alius, high, and opacus, dark, denote variable attributes ; 
but aineus, brazen, triplex, threefold, and diurnus, daily, do not admit of different 
degrees in their signification. 

2. The comparison of an adjective is the expression of its quality 
in different degrees. 



§ 123-125. ADJECTIVES. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 75 

3. There are three degrees of comparison — the positive, the com- 
parative, and the superlative. 

4. The positive simply denotes a quality, without reference to other 
degrees of the same quality ; as, alius, high ; mltis, mild. 

5. The comparative denotes that a quality belongs to one of two 
objects, or sets of objects, in a greater degree than to the other ; as, 
aldor, higher ; mitior, milder. 

6. The superlative denotes that a quality belongs to one of several 
objects, or sets of objects, in a greater degree than to any of the rest; 
as, altissimus, highest ; mitissimus, mildest. 

Rem 1. Sometimes also the comparative denotes that a quality, at different 
times or in other circumstances, belongs in different degrees to the same object; 
as, est sajrientior quamfuit, he is wiser than he was. 

Rem. 2. The comparative sometimes expresses the proportion between two 
qualities of the same object; as, est doctior quam sapientior, he is more learned 
than wise ; that is, his learning is greater than his wisdom. 

Rem. 3. The comparative is also used elliptically instead of our 'too' or 
• rather ' ; as, vivit liberius, he lives too freely, or, rather freely. Cf. § 256, R. 9. 

Rem. 4. The superlative, like the positive with per, (cf. § 127, 2), often indi- 
cates a high degree of a quality without direct comparison with the same qual- 
ity in other objects ; as, amicus carissimus, a very dear friend. 

§ 123. 1. Degrees of a quality inferior to the positive may be denoted 
by the adverbs minus, less; minlme, least, prefixed to the positive; as, jucundus, 
pleasant; minus jucundus, less pleasant; minime jucundus, least pleasant. 

2. A small degree of a quality is indicated by sub prefixed to the positive; as, 
amdrus, bitter; subamdrus, bitterish, or, somewhat bitter. 

3. An equal degree of a quality may be denoted by tarn followed by quam, 
ceque followed by ac, sic followed by ut, etc. ; as, hebes, ceque ac pecus, as stupid 
as a brute. 

§ 124:. 1. The comparative and superlative in Latin, as in Eng- 
lish, are denoted either by peculiar terminations, or by certain ad- 
verbs prefixed to the positive. Cf. § 127, 1. 

Masc. Fern. Neut. 

2. The terminational comparative ends in tor, tor, zus ; 
the terminational superlative in issimus, issima, issimum. 

3. These terminations are added to the root of the positive ; as, 
alius, aldor, altissimus ; high, higher, highest. 

mltis, mitior, miVissimus; mild, milder, mildest. 
felix, (gen. fellcis,) felicior, /eZicissimus ; happy, happier, happiest. 

In like manner compare 
Arc'-tus, strait. Cru-de'-lis, cruel. Ca'-pax, capacious. 

Ca'-rus, dear. Fer'-tl-lis, fertile. Cle'-mens, (gen. -tis) merciful. 

Doc'-tus, learned. LS'-vis, light. In'-ers, (gen. -tis), sluggish. 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

§ 12o. 1. Adjectives in er form their superlative by adding 
rXmus to that termination ; as, deer, active ; gen. acris ; comparative, 
acrior ; superlative, acerrimus. 



Facilis, 


facilior, 


facillimus, 


Difficilis, 


difficilior, 


difficillimuS, 


Gracilis, 


gracilior, 
humilior, 


gracillimus, 
humillimus, 


Humilis, 


Sjmilis, 


similior, 


simillimus, 


Dissimilis, 


dissimilior, 


dissimillimus, 



76 ADJECTIVES. — DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. § 126. 

In like manner, pauper, pauperrimus. Vetus has a similar superlative, veter- 
rimus, from the old collateral form veter. 

2. Six adjectives in lis form their superlative by adding limus to 
the root : — 

easy, 
difficult, 
slender, 
low. 
like, 
unlike. 
Imbecillus or imbecillis, weak, has two forms, imbecillissimus and irnbeciffimus. 

3. (a.) Five adjectives in ficus (fromfacio) derive their compar- 
atives and superlatives from supposed forms in ens : — 

Beneficus, beneficentior, beneficentissimus, beneficent. 
Honorificus, honorificentior, honorificentissimus, honorable. 
Magnificus, magnificentior, magnificentissimus, splendid. 
Munificus, munificentior, munificentissimus, liberal. _ 

Maleflcus, , maleficentissimus, hurtful. 

(b.) Adjectives in dlcens and volens form their comparatives and superlatives 
regularly; but instead of those positives, forms in dicus and vdlus are more 
common; as, 

Maledicens or dicus, maledicentior, maledicentissimus, slanderous. 
Benevolens, or-volus, benevolentior, benevolentissimus, benevolent. 

4. These five have regular comparatives, but irregular super- 
latives : — 

Dexter, dexterior, dextimus, right. 

Extera, {fern.) exterior, extremus, or extimus, outward. 

Postera, {fern.) posterior, postremus, or postumus, hind. 

Inferus, inferior, infimus, or Imus, below. 

Superus, superior, supremus, or summus, above. 

Eemakk 1. The nominative singular of postSra does not occur in the mas- 
culine, and that of extera wants good authority. 

5. The following are very irregular in comparison : — 

Bonus, melior, optamus, good, better, best. 

Malus, psjor, pessimus, bad, worse, worst. 

Magnus, major, maximus, great, greater, greatest. 

Parvus, minor, minimus, little, less, least. 

Multus, plurimus, ") 

Multa, plurima, > much, more, most. 

Multum, plus,* plurimum, ) 

Nequam, nequior, nequissimus, worthless, etc. 

Frugi, frugalior, frugalissimus, frugal, etc. 

Rem. 2. All these, except magnus, whose regular forms are contracted, either 
form their comparatives and superlatives from obsolete adjectives, or take them 
from other words of similar signification. 

DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 

§ 120* 1. Seven adjectives want the positive : — 

Citerior, citimus,nenrer. Prior, primus, former. 

Deterior, deterrimus, tvorse. Propior, proximus, nearer. 

Interior, intimus, inner. Ulterior, ultimus, farther. 

Ocior, ocissimus, swifter. 

* See § 110. 



§ 127. ADJECTIVES DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 77 

2. Eight want the terminational comparative : — 

Consultus, consultissimus, skilful. Par, parisslmus, (very rare), equal. 

Inclutus, inclutissimus, renowned. Persuasus, persuasisslmum (neuter), 
Invictus, invictisslmus, invincible. persuaded. 

Invitus, invitissimus, unwilling. Sacer, sacerrfmus, sacred. 
Meritus, meritisslmus, (very rare,) 
deserving. 

3. Eight have very rarely the terminational comparative : — 

Apricus, apricissimus, sunny. Falsus, falsisslmus, false. 

Bellus, bellissimus,7?ne. Fldus, fidissimus, faithful. 

Comis, comisslmus, courteous. Novus, novissimus, new. 

Diversus, diversissimus, different. Vetus, vetemmus, old. 

4. The following want the terminational superlative : — 

Adolescens, adolescentior, young. Proclivis, proclivior, sloping. 

Agrestis, agrestior, rustic. Pronus, pronior, bending down. 

Alacer, alacrior, active. Protervus, protervior, violent. 

Ater, atrior, black. sequior, worse. 

Caecus, caecior, blind. Propinquus, propinquior, near. 

Deses, desidior, inactive. Salutaris, salutarior, salutary. 

Diuturnus, diuturnior, lasting. Satis, sufficient; satius, preferable. 

Iiifinitus, infinitior, unlimited. Satur, saturior , full. 

Ingens, ingentior, great. Senex, senior, old. 

Jejunus, jejunior, fasting. Silvestris, silvestrior, woody. 

Juvenis, junior, young. Sinister, sinisterior, left. 

Licens, licentior, unrestrained. Suplnus, supinior, lying on the back. 

Longinquus, longinquior, distant. Surdus, surdior, deaf. ' 

OpTmus, opimior, rich. Teres, teretior, round. 

Remark 1. The superlative of juvenis and adolescens is supplied by minimus 
ndtu, youngest ; and that of senex by maximus ndtu, oldest. The comparatives 
minor ndtu and major ndtu sometimes also occur. 

PiEM. 2. Most adjectives also in ilis, His, dlis, and bilis, have no terminational 
superlative. 

5. Many variable adjectives have no terminational comparative or 
superlative. Such are, 

(a.) Adjectives in bundus, imus, inus (except divlnus), orus, most in Ivus, and 
in us pure (except -quus.) Yet arduus, assiduus, egregius, exiguus, industrius, per- 
petuus, pius, strenuus, and vacuus, have sometimes a terminational comparison. 
So, dropping i, noxior, innoxior, sobrior. 

(b. ) The following — almus, calvus, cdnus,cicur, claudus, degener, delirus, dispar, 
egenus, impar, impiger, invidus, lacer, memor, mlrus, nudus, praicox, prceditus t 
rUdis, salvus, sospes, superstes, vulgaris, and some others. 

§ 127. 1. The comparative and superlative may also be 
formed by prefixing to the positive the adverbs magis, more, and 
maxime, most ; as, idoneus, fit ; magis idoneus, maxlme idoneus. 

2. Various degrees of a quality above the positive are expressed 
by admodum, aliquanto, apprxme, bene, imprimis, multum, oppido, per- 
quam, and valde, and also hy per compounded with the positive; as, 
difficilis, difficult ; perdifficilis, very difficult. To a few adjectives prce 
is in like manner prefixed ; as, prcedilrus, very hard. 

3. The force of the comparative is increased by prefixing etiam, 
even, still, or yet ; and that of both comparative and superlative, by 

7* 



78 ADJECTIVES DERIVATION. § 128. 

prefixing longe or multo, much, far ; as, longe nobilissimus ; longe melior ; 
iter multo facilius; multo maxima pars. 

4. Vel, 'even', and quam, with or without possum, 'as much as 
possible ', before the superlative, render it more emphatic ; as, Cicero 
vel optimus oratorum Romanorum. Quam maximum potest militum nu- 
merum colligit; quam doctissimus, extremely learned ; quam celerrime, 
as speedily as possible. 

Note 1. Instead of quam with possum, quantus is sometimes used, in the same 
case as the superlative ; as, Quantis maximis potuit itinerxbus contendit. 

Note 2. Unus, with or without omnium, is sometimes added to superlatives to 
increase their force ; as, Hoc ego uno omnium plurimum utor. Cic. tfrbem unam 
mihi amicissimam declindvi, Id. It is used in like manner with excello. 

5. All adjectives whose signification admits of different degrees, if 
they have no terminational comparison, may be compared by means 
of adverbs. 

6. Instead of the comparative and superlative degrees, the positive with 
the prepositions prce, ante, prosier, or supra, is sometimes used ; as, prce. nobis 
bedtus, happier than we. Cic. Ante alias pulchritudine insignis, most beauti- 
ful. Liv. Sometimes the preposition is used in connection with the superla- 
tive; as, Ante alios pulcherrimus omnes. Virg. 

7. Among adjectives which denote an invariable quality or limitation, and 
which, therefore, cannot be compared, are those denoting matter, time, num- 
ber, possession, country, part, interrogation; also compounds of jugum, somnus, 
gero, &n&fero, and many others. 

DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 1S8. Derivative adjectives are formed chiefly from nouns, 
from other adjectives, and from verbs. 

I. Those derived from nouns and adjectives are called denomina- 
tives. The following are the principal classes : — 

1. (a.) The termination eiis, added to the root, denotes the material of which 
a thing is made, and sometimes similarity; as, aureus, golden; argenteus, of 
silver ; ligneus, wooden ; vitreus, of glass ; virgineus, maidenly ; from aurum, ar- 
gentum, etc. See § 9, Kem. 3. 

(6.) Some adjectives of this kind have a double form in neus and nus; as, 
eburneus and eburnus, of ivory. 

(c. ) The termination inus has the same meaning; as, adamantinus, of ada- 
mant; cedrinus, of cedar; from addmas and cedrus. So, also, enus ; as, terrenus, 
of earth, from terra. 

_ (d.) The termination eiis or ius (Greek no;), and also icus, belong to adjec- 
tives formed from Greek names of men, and denote 'of or ' pertaining to'; 
as, Achilleus, Sophodeus, Aristotellus, Platonicus ; Pythagoreus and Pythagoriats; 
Homerlus and Homericiis. Names in ias make adjectives in idcus; as, Arehias, 
Archidcus. Sometimes, though rarely in the purest Latin authors, adjectives in 
eus or lus are formed from Latin names; as, Marcellia or -ea, a festival in 
honor of the Marcelli. 

2. (a.) The terminations alls, dris, drius, His, atilis, icius, icus, ius, eiis, and 
Inus, denote ' belonging ' ' pertaining,' or ' relating to ' ; as, capitdlis, relating 
to the life ; from caput. 



§ 128. ADJECTIVES — DERIVATION. 79 

So comitidlis, regdlis ; Apollindris, consuldris, populdris ; argentarius ; civilis, 
hostilis, juvenilis; aguatilis, fluviatilis; tribunicius, patricius ; bellicus, civicus, Ger- 
manicus ; accusatorius, imperatorius, regius; Hect&reus ; caninus, equinus, ferinus, 
masculinus ; from comitia, rex, Apollo, consul, populus, argentum, civis, etc. 

(b.) The termination ills sometimes expresses character; as, hostilis, hostile; 
puerilis, boyish ; from hoslis and puer. 

(c.) The termination inus belongs especially to derivatives from names of 
animals, and other living beings. 

3. The termination arius, as a substantive, scil. faber, etc., generally denotes 
profession or occupation; as, argentarius, a silversmith; from argentum; — 
coriarius, statuarius ; from corium and statua. When added to numeral adjec- 
tives, it denotes how many equal parts a thing contains. See § 121, 4. 

4. The terminations osus and lentus denote abundance, fulness ; as, animosus, 
full of courage ; fraudulentus, given to fraud ; from animus and fraus. So lapi- 
dosus, vinosus, poi'tudsus, turbulentus, sanguinolentus, violentus. Before lentus, a 
connecting vowel is inserted, which is commonly u, but sometimes 6. 

Note. — Adjectives of this class are called amplificatives. See § 104, 12. 

5. From adjectives are formed diminutives in ulus, ctilus, etc., in the same 
manner as from nouns ; as, dulciculus, sweetish ; from dulcis. So lentulus, mi- 
sellus, panHlus, etc. See § 100, 3, and § 104, 11. Diminutives are sometimes 
formed from comparatives ; as, majusculus, duriusctilus, somewhat great, some- 
what hard, etc. Double diminutives are formed from paucus, viz pauxillus and 
pauxillulus ; and from bonus, (benus) are formed bellus and bellulus. 

6. (a.) From the names of places, and especially of towns, are derived pa- 
trial adjectives in ensis, inus, as, and anus, denoting of or belonging to such 
places. 

(b.) Thus from Cannes, is formed Cannensis; from Sulmo, Sulmonensis. In 
like manner, from castra and circus come castrensis, circensis. But Athence 
makes Atheniensis ; and some Greek towns in la and ea drop i and e in their 
adjectives; as, Antiochensis, Nicomedensis. 

(c.) Those in inus are formed from names of places ending in ia and ium; 
as, Aricia, Ariclnus ; Caudium, Caudinus ; Capitolium, Capilolinus ; Latium, La- 
tinus. Some names of towns, of Greek origin, with other terminations, also 
form adjectives in Inus ; as, Tarentum, Tarentinus. 

(d.) Most of those in as are formed from nouns in um ; some from nouns in 
a ; as, Arpinum, Arpinas ; Capena, Capenas. 

(e.) Those in anus are formed from names of towns of the first declension, 
or from certain common nouns ; as, Alba, Albdnus ; Roma, Romdnus ; Cumce, 
Cumdnus ; Thebai, Thebdnus; also from some of the second declension; as, 
Tusculum, Tusculdnus ; Fundi, Funddnus :—fons, fontdnus ; mons, montdnus ; 
urbs, urbdnus : oppxdum, oppiddnus. 

(f.) Adjectives with the terminations anus, idnus, and inus are formed from 
names of men ; as, Sulla, Sulldnus ; Tullius, Tullidnus ; Jugurtha, Jugurthinus. 

{g.) Greek names of towns in polis form patrial adjectives in politdnus; as, 
NeapClis, Neapolitdnus. 

JJi.) Greek names of towns generally form patrials in ius ; as, Rhodus, Rho- 
dius ; Lacedcemon, Lacedcemonius ; — but those in a form them in ozus ; as, La- 
rissa, Larissaius ; Smyrna, Smyrnazus. 

(i.) From many patrials; as, Britannus, Gallus, Afer, Persa, Arabs, etc., 
adjectives are formed in icus and ius ; as, Britannicus, GalUcus, Africus, Persi- 
cus, Arabicus ; so Syrus, Syrius ; Thrax, Thracius. 

7. A large class of derivative adjectives, though formed from 
nouns, have the terminations of perfect participles. They generally 
signify wearing or furnished with ; as, 

aldtus, winged; barbdtus, bearded; galtdtus, helmeted; auritus, long-eared; 
turrilus, turreted ; cornutus, horned ; from ala, barba, galea^ auris, etc. 



80 ADJECTIVES DERIVATION. § 129. 

8. The termination aneus, annexed to the root of an adjective or 
participle in us, expresses a resemblance to the quality denoted by 
the primitive ; as, supervacaneus, of a superfluous nature. 

§ 120. II. Adjectives derived from verbs are called verbal ad- 
jectives. Such are the following classes : — 

1. The termination bundus, added to the first root of the verb, 
with a connecting vowel, which is commonly that of the verb, (see 
§ 150, 5,) has the general meaning of the present participle; as, 

errdbundus, moribundus, from erro, morior, equivalent to errans, moriens. 

(a.) In many the meaning is somewhat strengthened; as, gratuldbundus, full 
of congratulations ; lacrimdbundus, weeping profusely. 

(b.) Must verbals in bundus are from verbs of the first conjugation, a few from 
those of the third, and but one from the second and fourth respectively, viz. 
pudibundus and lascivlbundus. 

(c.) Some verbal adjectives in cundus have a similar sense ; as, rubicundus, 
verecundus, from rubeo and vereor. 

2. The termination idus, added to the root, especially of neuter 
verbs, denotes the quality or state expressed by the verb ; as, 

algidus, cold; calidus, warm; madidus, moist; rapidus, rapid; from algeo, 
caleo, madeo, rapio. 

3. The termination uus, also, denotes the quality expressed by the 
verb ; and adjectives in uus derived from active verbs take a passive 
meaning; as, 

congruus, agreeing, from congruo ; so, assiduus, nocuus, innocuus : — irriguus, 
well watered ; conspicuus, visible ; from vrrigo, conspicio. 

4. (a.) The terminations ills and bills, added to the root of a verb, 
with its connecting vowel, denote passively, capability, or desert ; as, 

amabilis, worthy to be loved; credibilis, deserving credit; placabilis, easy to be 
appeased ; agilis, active ; duciiUs, ductile ; from dmo, credo, placo ; ago, duco. 
They are rarely active ; as, horribilis, terribilis, fertilis ; aer per cuncia mea~ 
bills. Plin. 

(b.) In adjectives of these forms, derived from verbs of the third conjuga- 
tion, the connecting vowel is % ; sometimes, also, in those from verbs of the 
second conjugation, in these and other forms, i is used instead of e ; as, horri- 
bilis, terribilis, from horreo and terreo. 

(c.) These terminations, with the connecting vowel, are sometimes added to 
the third root; as, flexilis, flexibilis ; coctilis, coclibilis, from flecto (flex-), etc. 

5. . The termination icius or itius, added to the third root of the 
verb, has a passive sense ; as, Jlctitius, feigned ; conductitius, to be 
hired; from Jingo (f-ct-), etc. 

6. The termination ax, added to the root of a verb, denotes an in- 
clination, often one that is faulty ; as, 

audax, audacious; Idquax, talkative; rdpax rapacious; from audec, \6quor, 
rapio. 

7. The termination tvus, annexed to the third root of a verb, de- 
notes fitness or ability to produce the action expressed by the verb ; 
as, disjunctlws, disjunctive, from disjungo. 



§ 130, 131. ADJECTIVES COMPOSITION. 81 

8. Verbals in tor and irix, (see § 102, 6, (a.), are often used as adjectives, espe- 
cially in poetry ; as, victor exercitus, mctrlces Uteres. In the plural they become 
adjectives of three terminations; as, victoi-es, victrices, victricia. So also hospes, 
especially by the later poets, is used as an adjective, having hospita in the femi- 
nine singular and also in the neuter plural. 

§ 130. HE. Adjectives derived from participles, and retaining 
their form, are called participial adjectives', as, dmans, fond of; doc- 
tus, learned. 

IV. Some adjectives are derived from adverbs ; as, crastvnus, of 
to-morrow ; hodiernus, of this day ; from eras and hodie. 

V. Some adjectives are derived from prepositions ; as, contrarius, 
contrary, from contra ; posterus, subsequent, from post. 



COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 131. Compound adjectives are formed variously : — 

1. Of two nouns; as, capripes, goat-footed — of caper and pes; ignic&mus, 
having fiery hair — of ignis and coma. 

Note. — See, respecting the connecting short ?, in case the first part of the compound 
is a noun or an adjective, $ 103, Rem. 1. 

2. Of a noun and an adjective; as, noctivdgus, wandering in the night — 
of nox and vagus. So lucifugax, shunning the light — of lux and fugax. 

3. Of a noun and a verb ; as, corniger, bearing horns — of cornu and gero ; 
letiftr. bringing death — of letum and fero. So carnivdrus, causidicus, ignivd- 
mus, lucifugus, pai'ticeps. 

4. Of an adjective and a noun; as, cequcevus, of the same age — of cequus and 
cevnm ; celeripes, swift-footed — of celer and pes. So centimdnus, decennis, mag- 
nanimus, miscricors, unanimis. 

5. Of two adjectives; as, ceniumgeminus, a hundred-fold ; multicdvus, having 
many cavities; quintusdeci?nus, the fifteenth. 

6. Of an adjective and a verb; as, brevildquens, speaking briefly— of brevis 
and luquor ; magnificus, magnificent — of magnus andfdeio. 

7. Of an adjective and a termination; as, qualiscumque, quotcumque, uterque. 

8. Of an adverb and a noun; as, bicoipor, two-bodied — of bis and corpus. 

9. Of an adverb and an adjective; as, maledicax, slanderous — of male and 
dlcax. So antemerididnus, before mid-day. 

10. Of an adverb and a verb ; as, beneficus, beneficent — of bene and fdcio ; 
malevdlus, malevolent — of male and vdlo. 

11. Of a preposition and a noun; as, dmens, mad — of a and mens. So conu- 
sors, decdlor, dejormis, implumis, inermis. 

12. Of a preposition and an adjective; as, concdvus, concave; infirfus, un- 
faithful. So improvidus, percdrus, pr&dives, subalbidus. 

13. Of a preposition and a verb ; as, continuus, uninterrupted — of con and 
teneo ; insciens, ignorant — of in and scio. So pracipuus, promiscuus, substillus, 
superstes. 

Remark. When the former part is a preposition, its final consonant is sometimeB 
changed, to adapt it to the consonant which follows it; as, imprudens — of in and pru~ 
dens. Set § 196; and cf. § 103, R. 2. 



82 PRONOUNS. — SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS. § 132, 133. 



PRONOUNS. 

§ 132. 1. A pronoun is a word which supplies the place 
of a noun. 

2. There are eighteen simple pronouns : — 

Ego, i". Hie, this, the latter. Suus, his, hers, its, etc. 

Tu, thou. Is, that or he. Cujus ? whose ? 

Sui, of himself, etc. Quis ? who f Noster, our. 

Ille, that, the former. Qui, who. Vester, your. 

Ipse, himself. Meus, my. Nostras, of our country. 

Iste, that, that of yours. Tuus ^thy. Cujas? of what country f 

3. Ego, tu, and sui, and commonly also quis and its compounds, are substan- 
tives: the other pronouns, both simple and compound, are adjectives, but are 
often by ellipsis used as substantives. 

4. Ego, tu, and sui are commonly called personal pronouns. They are a 
species of appellatives (§ 26, 3,) of general application. Ego is used by a 
speaker to designate himself; tu, to designate the person whom he addresses. 
Hence ego is of the first person, tu of the second. (§ 35, 2.) Sui is of the third 
person, and has always a reflexive signification, referring to the subject of the 
sentence. The oblique cases of ego and tu are also used reflexively, when the 
subject of the proposition is of the first or second person. 

5. The remaining pronouns, except quis and its compounds, are adjectives, 
as they serve to limit the meaning of substantives; and they are pronouns, be- 
cause, like substantive pronouns, they may designate any object in certain 
situations or -circumstances. 

6. Meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, and cujus, have the same. extent of signifi- 
cation as the pronouns from which they are derived, and are equivalent to the 
genitive cases of their primitives. 

7. Pronouns, like substantives and adjectives, are declined ; but most of 
them want the vocative. Sui, from the nature of its signification, wants also 
the nominative in both numbers. 

8. The substantive pronouns take the gender of the objects which they de- 
note. The adjective pronouns, like adjectives, have three genders. 

SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 133. The substantive pronouns are thus declined : — 
Singular. 

N. e'-go, I. tu, thou. 

ri • „*•■* „j? i.'-^j? ( su'-I, of himself, her- 

G. me -i, of me. tu -i, of thee. j self , itself . 

D. mi'-hi, to me. tib'-i * to thee. sib'-I * to himself, etc. 

Ac. me, me. te, thee. se, himself, etc. 

V. tu, thou. 



Ah. me, with me. te, with thee. se, with himself, etc. 

*See§19, l,Exc. 



§134. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 



83 



Plural. 



N. nos, we. 
q ( nos'-trum 
*'\or nos'-tri, 
D. no'-bls, to us. 
Ac. nos, us. 

V. — 

Ab. no'-bls, with us. 



of us. 



vos, ye or you 
ves'-trum or 

ves'-trl, 
vo'-bls, to you. 
vos, you. 
vos, ye or you. 
vo'-bls, with you. 



I of you. 



su'-I, of themselves. 

sib'-i, to themselves. 
se, themselves. 



se, M?i'$ themselves. 
1. Jfe and mi are ancient forms for mihi. So min' for mihine, 



Remakk 
Pers. 1, 2. 

Rem. 2. The syllable met is sometimes annexed to the substantive pronouns, 
in an intensive sense, either with or without ipse ; as, egdmet, I myself; mihi- 
met ipsi, for myself. . It is not annexed, however, to the genitives plural, nor to 
iu in the nominative or vocative. In these cases of tu, tute or internet is used. 
In the accusative and ablative the reduplicated forms meme and tete in the sin- 
gular, and sese in both numbers, are employed intensively. Mepte, intensive, 
med and ted, for me and te, and mis and tis for mei and tui, occur in the comic 
writers. 

3. Nostrum and vestrum are contracted from nostroriim, nostrdrum, and ves- 
trorum, vestrdrum. Respecting the difference in the use of nostrum and nostri, 
vestrum and vestri, see § 212, R. 2, N. 2. 

4. The preposition cum is affixed to the ablative of these pronouns in both 
numbers ; as, mecum, nobiscum, etc. Cf. § 136, R. 1. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 134:. Adjective pronouns may be divided into the follow- 
ing classes : — demonstrative, intensive, relative, interrogative, in- 
definite, possessive, and patriot. 
Note. Some pronouns belong to two of these classes. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Demonstrative pronouns are such as specify what object is 
meant. 

They are itte, iste, hie, and is, and their compounds, and are thus 
declined : — 





Singular. 






Plural. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


N. il'-le, 


il'-la, 


il'-lud, 


il'-ll, 


il'-lse, 


il'-la, 


G. il-ll'-us* 


il-l!'-us, 


il-H'-us, 


il-lo'-rum 


il-la-rum, 


il-lo'-rum, 


D. il'-ll, 


il'-ll, 


il'-ll, 


il'-lls, 


il'-lls, 


il'-lls, 


Ac. il'-lum, 


il'-lam, 


il'-lud, 


il'-los, 


il'-las, 


il'-la, 


V. il'-le, 


il'-la, 


il'-lud, 


il'-li, 


il'-lae, 


il'-la, 


Ab. il'-lo. 


il'-la. 


il'-lo. 


il'-lls. 


il'-lls. 


il'-lls. 






♦See} 


15,1. 







84 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



§134. 



Iste is declined like Me. 





Singular. 






Plural. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


N. hie, 


haec, 


hoc, 


hi, 


hae, 


haec, 


G. hu'-jus, 


hu'-jus, 


hu'-jus, 


ho'-rum, 


ha'-rum, 


ho'-rum, 


D. huic*, 


huic, 


huic, 


his, 


his, 


his, 


Ac. hunc, 


hanc, 


hoc, 


hos, 


has, 


haec, 


V. hie, 


haec, 


hoc, 


hi, 


hae, 


haec, 


Ah. hoc. 


hae. 


hoc. 


his. 


his. 


his. 




Singular. 




Plural. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


N. is^ 


e'-a, 


id, 


i'-i. 


e'-se, 


e'-a, 


G. e'-jus, 


e'-jus, 


e'-jus, 


e-o'-rum, 


e-a'rum, 


e-o'-rum, 


D. e'-i, 


e'-i, 


e'-i, 


i'-is or e'-is, 


i'-is or e'-is, 


i'-is or e'-is 


J.C. e'-um, 

V. 

Ah. e'-o. 


e'-am, 


id, 


e'-os, 


e'-as, 


e'-a, 


e'-a. 


e'-o. 


i 


-is or e'-is. 


i'-is or e'-is. 


i'-is or e'-is 



Remark 1. Instead of Me, ollus was anciently used; whence oUi masc. plur. 
in Virgil. like fern., for iUius and Mi, is found in Lucretius and Cato, as also 
in Cato, has for huic fern. ; hice for hi, and hcec for ftce in Plautus and Terence. 
Im for turn, is found in the Twelve Tables ; eii for ei, and S5«s and t%ws for 
iis, in Plautus ; ece, fern., for ei, and edbus for ies, in Cato. 

Rem. 2. From ecce, lo ! with Me, iste, and is, are formed, in colloquial language, 
nom., ecca; eccitta, eccillud; ace. sing., tecum, eccam ; eccillum (by syncope 
ellum), eccillam ; eccistam ; ace. plur., eccos, ecca. 

Rem. 3. Istic and illic are compounded of iste hie, and Hie hie ; or, as some 
say, of iste ce, and Me ce. The former sometimes retains the aspirate, as isthic. 
They are more emphatic than Me and iste. 



Istic is thus declined: — 

Singular. 



M. 

N. is'-tlc, 
Ac. is'-tunc 
Ab. is'-toc. 



F. 

is'-tsec, 
is'-tanc 
is'-tac. 

Illic is declined in the same manner. 



N. 
is'-toc, or is'-tuc, 
is'-toc, or is'-tuc, 
is't5c. 



N. 
Ac. 



Plural. 

M. F. N. 

is'-tsec, 

is'-tae 



Rem. 4. Ce, intensive, is sometimes added to the several cases_ of hie, and 
rarely to some cases of the other demonstrative pronouns; as, hujusce, huncce, 
hancce, hocce, hice, hcece or hcec, hor-unc, harumce, haiiince, or harunc, hosce, 
hasce, hisce ; illhisce, Mace, Mosce, illasce, illisce ; istace, istisce ; ejusce, Usee. 
When ne, interrogative, is also annexed, ce becomes ci; as, hxRCCine, hoscine, 
hiscine ; istuccine, istaccine, istoscine ; illiceine, Manccine. 

Rem. 5. Modi, the genitive of mddus, annexed to the genitive singular of de- 
monstrative and relative pronouns, imparts to them the signification of adjec- 
tives of quality; as, hujusmddi or hujuscemddi, like talis, of this sort, such; 
Miusmddi and istiusmddi, of that sort; cujusmodi, of what sort, like quails; cu- 



*See§9, 5. 



135. 



INTENSIVE PRONOUNS. 



85 



juscemddi, cujusquemddi, cujusmodicumque, of what kind soever ; cujusdammddi, 
of some kind, bo also istimddi, cuimodi and cuicuimddi, instead of istiusmddi, 
cujusmddi, etc. 

Rem. 6. The suffix dem is annexed to is, forming Idem, " the same," which 
is thus declined: — 



M. * 
N. i'-dem, 
G. e-jus'-dem, 
D. e-i'-dem, 
Ac. e-un'-dem, 

V. 

Ab. e-o'-dem. 



Singular. 

F. 
e'-a-dem, 
e-jus'-dem, 
e-I'-dem, 
e-an'-dem, 

e-a'-dem. 



N. 
I'-dem, 
e-jus'-dem, 
e-r-dem, 
i'-dem, 

e-o'-dem. 



Plural. 
F. 
i'-dem, 



M. F. N. 

N. i-i'-dem, e-se'-dem, e'-a-dem, 

67. e-o-run'-dem, e-a-run'-dem, e-o-run'-dem, 

D. e-is'-dem, or i-is'-dem, e-is'-dem, or i-is'-dem, e-is'-dem, or i-is'-dem, 

Ac. e-os'-dem, e-as'-dem, e'-a-dem, 

\\ 

Ab. e-is'-dem, or i-is'-dem. e-is'-dem, or i-is'-dem. e-is'dem, or i-is'-dem. 

Note 1/ In compound pronouns, m before d is changed into n ; as, eundem, 
eorundem, etc. 

Note 2. In Sallust isdem, and in Palladius hisdem occur for iisdem; and En- 
nius in Cicero has eademmet for eddem. 



INTENSIVE PRONOUNS. 



§ 13o. Intensive pronouns are such as serve to render an 
object emphatic. 

To this class belong ipse, and the intensive compounds already- 
mentioned. See §§ 133, R. 2, and 134, R. 4. 

Ipse is compounded of is and the suffix pse, and is thus declined:— 





Singular. 






Plural. 




M. 


F. 


N. . 


M. 


F. 


N. 


N. ip'-se, 


ip'-sa, 


ip'-sum, 


ip'-si, 


ip'-sae, 


ip'-sa, 


G. ip-sl'-us, 


ip-si'-us, 


ip-sl'-us, 


ip-so'-rurr 


l, ip-sa'-rum 


ip-so'-rum, 


D. ip'-si, 


ip'-si, 


ip'-si, 


ip'-sis, 


ip'-sis, 


ip'-sis, 


Ac. ip'-sum, 


ip'-sam, 


ip'-sum, 


ip'-sos, 


ip'-sas, 


ip'-sa, 


V. ip'-se, 


ip'-sa, 


ip'-sum, 


ip'-si, 


ip'-sae, 


ip'-sa, 


4 U). ip'-so. 


ip'-sa. 


ip'-so. 


ip'-sis. 


ip'-sis. 


ip'-sis. 



Remark 1. Ipse is commonly subjoined to nouns or pronouns ; as, Jupiter 
ipse, tu ipse, Jupiter himself, etc. ; and hence is sometimes called the adjunctive 
pronoun. 

Rem. 2. A nominative ipsus, occurs in early writers, and a superlative ipsis- 
simus, his very self, is found in Plautus. 

Rem. 3. In old writers the is of ipse is declined, while pse remains unde- 
clined; as, eapse, (nom. and abl.), eampse, and eopse, instead of ipsa, ipsam, 
and ipso. So also reapse, i. e. re eapse, " in fact." 
8 



86 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



§136. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 130. Relative pronouns are such as relate to a preceding 
noun or pronoun. 

1. They are qui, who, and the compounds auicumque and quisquis, 
whoever. The latter are called general relatives. 

2. In a general sense, the demonstrative pronouns are often relatives ; but 
the name is commonly appropriated to those above specified. They serve to 
introduce a proposition, limiting or explaining a preceding noun or pronoun, to 
which they relate, and which is called the antecedent. 



Qui is thus declined 


— 








Singular. 






Plural. 




M. F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


K 


N. qui, quae, 
G. cu'-jus, cu'-jiis, 
D. cui,* cui, 
Ac. quern, quam, 


quod, 
cu'-jiis, 
cui, 
quod, 


qui, 

quo'-rum, 
qui'-bus, 
quos, 


quae, 

qua'-rum, 
qui'-bus, 
quas, 


quse, 

quo'-rum, 
qui'-bus, 
quse, 



Ab. quo. qua. 



quo. 



qui'-bus. qui'-bus. qui'-bus. 



Remark 1. Qui is sometimes used for the ablative singular, in all genders, 
and rarely also for the ablative plural. To the ablatives quo, quo, qui, and qui- 
bus, cum is commonly annexed, cf. § 133, 4. Cicero uses qulcum for quocum, 
when an indefinite person is meant. 

Rem. 2. Queis (monosyllabic, § 9, R. 1), and quls are sometimes used in the 
dative and ablative plural for quibus. Cujus and cui were anciently written 
quojus and quoi : and, instead of the genitive cujus, a relative adjective cujus, 
a, urn, very rarely occurs. 

3. Quicumque, (or quicunque), is declined like qui. 

Rem. 3. Qui is sometimes separated from cumque by the interposition of 
one or more words ; as, quw me cumque vocant terras. Virg. A similar separa- 
tion sometimes occurs in the other compounds of cumque. 



4. Quisquis is thus declined : — 
Singular. 
M. F. N. 

N. quis'-quis, quis'-quis,f quid'-quid, 

Ac. quem'-quem, quid'-quid, 

Ab. quo'-quo. qua'-qua. quo'-quo. 



Plural. 
M. 
N. qui'-qui, 
D. qui-bus'-qul-bus. 



Rem. 4. Quicquid is sometimes used for quidquid. Quiqul for quisquis occurs 
in Plautus; and quidquid is used adjectively in Cato R. R. 48. 



*Seef 9, 5; andcf. § 306,(1. 



t Cf. § 137, R. (1.) 



§ 137. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 87 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 137. Interrogative pronouns are such as serve to inquire 
which of a number of objects is intended. 

They are 

Quis? ) a , f , . 9 Ecquis? 1 Cujus ? whose ? 

Qm S nzm?] wh0 - what ' Ecquisnam? L am/one? Cujas? of what 
9T- ? A which? what? $™1™* ^anyone. ^^ 
Qumam? ) Numquisnam, J 

1. Quis is commonly used substantively; qui, adjectively. The 
interrogative qui is declined like qui the relative. 



Quis is thus declined : — 






M. 


Singular. 
F. N. 


Plural. 
M. F. 


N. 


N. quis, 
G. cu'-jus, 
D. 'cui, 
Ac. quern, 

V. 

Ab. quo. 


quae, quid, 
cu'-jus, cu'-jus, 
cui, cui, 
quam, quid, 

qua. quo. 


qui, quae, 
quo'-rum, qua'-rum, 
qui'-biis, qui'-bus, 
quos, quas, 

qui'-bus. qui'-biis. 


quae, 
quo'-rum 
qui'-bus, 
quae, 


qui'-biis. 



Remark (1.) Quis is sometimes used by comic writers in the feminine, and 
even in the neuter. Quisnam, quisque and quisquam also occur as feminine. 

Rem. (2.) Qui is used for the ablative of quis in all genders, as it is for that 
of the relative qui. Cf. § 136, R. 1. 

Rem. (3.) Quis and qui have sometimes the signification of the indefinite 
pronoun aliquis (some one, any one), especially after the conjunctions ec (for 
e»), si, ne, new, nisi, num. ; and after relatives, as quo, quanta, etc. Sometimes 
quis and qui are used in the sense of qualis ? what sort ? 

2. The compounds quisnam and qulnam have respectively the sig- 
nification and declension of the interrogatives quis and qui. In the 
poets nam sometimes stands before quis. Virg. G. 4, 445. 

3. Ecquis and numquis are declined and used" like quis ; but are 
sometimes adjectives. Virg. Eel. 10, 28: Cic. Att. 13, 8. 

Rem. (4.) Ecqua is sometimes found in the nominative singular feminine ; 
and the neuter plural of numquis is numqua. 

Rem. (5.) Ecqui and numqui also occur, declined like the interrogative qui, 
and, like that, used adjectively. 

4. Ecquisnam and numquisnam are declined like ecquis ; but are 
found only in the singular ; — the former in the nominative in all gen- 
ders, and in the ablative masculine ; the latter in the nominative 
masculine and accusative neuter. In the nominative feminine and 
in the ablative, the former is used adjectively. 



88 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. § 138. 

5. The interrogative cujus is also defective : — 

Singular. Plural. 

M. F. N. ■ ** F. 

N. cu'-jus, cu'-ja, cu'-jum, N. cu'-jae, 

Ac. cu'-jum, cu'-jam, Ac. cu'-jas. 

Ab. cu'-ja. 

6. Cujas is declined like an adjective of one termination ; cujas, 
cujatis. See § 139, 4. 

Note. The interrogative pronouns are used not only in direct questions but 
in such dependent clauses also, as contain only an indirect question ; as, e. g. 
in the direct question, quis est ? who is he ? in the indirect, nesclo quis sit, I know- 
not who he is. Qui, in this sense, is found for quis ; as, qui sit ajperit, he dis- 
closes who he is. Cf. § 265, N. » 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

§ 138. Indefinite pronouns are such as denote an object 
in a general manner, without indicating a particular individual. 
They are 

Aliquis, some one. Quisquam, any one. Quidam, a certain one. 

Slquis, if any. Quispiam, some one. Quillbet, ) any one you 

Nequis, lest any. Unusquisque, each. Qulvis, J please. 

Quisque, every one. Aliquipiam, any, some. Quis and qui, § 137, E. (3.) 

Note. - Siquis and nequis are commonly written separately, si quis and ne 
quis : so also unus quisque. 

1. Aliquis is thus declined : — 

Singular. 



N. 

G. 

D. 

Ac. 

V. 

Ab. 


M. 

al'-i-quis, 
al-i-cu'-jus, 
al'-i-cui, 
al'-i-quem, 

al'-i-quo. 
M. 


F. 

al'-i-qua, 
al-i-cu'-jus, 
al'-I-cui, 
al'-i-quam, 

al'-i-qua. 

Plural. 
F. 


N. 
al'-i-quod, or -quid, 
al-i-cu'-ius, 
al -l-cui, 
al'-i-quod, or -quid, 


al'-i-quo. 

N. 



N. al'-i-qui, al'-i-quse, al'-i-qua, 

G. al-i-quo'-rum, al-i-qua'-rum, al-i-quo'-rum, 

D. a-liq'-ui-bus,* a-liq'-ui-bus, a-liq'-ui-bus, 

Ac. al'-i-quos, al'-i-quas, al'-i-qua, 

Ab. a-liq'-ui-bus. a-liq'-ui-bus. a-liq'-ui-bus. 



* Pronounced a-lilS-wi-bus. See §§ 9, 4, and 21, 3. 



§ 139. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 89 

2. Slquis and nequis are declined in the same manner ; but they 
sometimes have quoz in the fern, singular and neut. plural. 

(a.) Aliquis, in the nominative singular masculine, is used both as a sub- 
stantive and as an adjective; — aliqui, as an adjective, but is nearly obsolete. 
Aliquce in the fern. sing, occurs as an adjective in Lucretius, 4, 2, 64. Siqui, 
and nequi, Avhich are properly adjectives, are used also substantively for siquis 
and nequis, and in the nominative singular masculine these two forms are 
equivalent. The ablatives aliqui and siqul also occur. 

(b.) Aliqtiid, siquid, and nequid, like quid, are used substantively; aliquod, 
etc., like quod, are used adjectively. 

3. Quisque, quisquam, and quispiam, are declined like quis. 

(a.) In the neuter singular, however, quisque has quodque, quidque, or quicque ; 
quisquam has quidquam or quicquam ; and quispiam has quodpiam, quidpiam, or 
quippiam. The forms quidque or quicque, quidpiam or quippiam are used sub- 
stantively. 

(b.) Quisquam wants the feminine (except quamquam, Plaut. Mil. 4, 2, 68), 
and also the plural, and, with a few exceptions in Plautus, it is always used 
substantively, its place as an adjective being supplied by ullus. Quispiam is 
scarcely used in the plural, except in the nominative feminine, qucepiam. 

4. Unusquisque is compounded of unus and quisque, which are 
often written separately, and both words are declined. 

Thus unusquisque, uniusciij usque, unicuique, unumquemque, etc. The neuter 
is unwnquodque, or unumquidque. It has no plural. Unumquidquid for unum- 
quidque occurs in Plautus and Lucretius. 

5. Quldam, quilibet, and qulvis, are declined like qui, except that 
they have both quod and quid in the neuter, the former used adjec- 
tively, the latter substantively. 

Note. Qmdam has usually n before d in the accusative singular and geni- 
tive plural ; as, quendam, quoi'undam, etc. Cf. § 134, Note 1 . 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 139. 1. The possessive are derived from the genitives of 
the substantive pronouns, and of quis, and designate something 
belonging to their primitives. 

They are mens, tuus, suus, noster, vester, and cujus. Mens, tuus, 
and suus, are declined like bonus ; but meus has in the vocative sin- 
gular masculine mi, and very rarely meus. Cf. § 105, R. 3. In late 
writers mi occurs also in the feminine and neuter. 

2. Cujus also is declined like bonus ; but is defective. See § 137, 5. 
It occurs only in early Latin and in legal phraseology. 

8. Noster and vester are declined like piyer. See § 106. 

Remark 1. The terminations pie and met intensive are sometimes annexed 
to possessive pronouns, especially to the ablative singular ; as, suopte pondere, 
b v its own weight ; suapte manu, by his own hand. So nostrapte culpa ; su~ 
umpte amicum; meamet culpa. The suffix met is usually followed by ipse ; as, 
Hannibal sudmet ipse fraude captus abiit. Liv. ; but Sallust has meamet facta 
Ulcere. 

Rem. 2. Suus, like its primitive Bid, has always a reflexive signification, re- 
ferring to the subject of the sentence. Meus, tuus, noster, and vester, are also 
used reflexively, when the subject of the proposition is of the first or second 
person. See $ 132, 4. 
8* 



90 PATRIAL PRONOUNS. — PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. § 139. 

PATRIAL PRONOUNS. 

4. (a.) These are nostras and cujas. See §§ 100, 2, and 128, 6. 
They are declined like adjectives of one termination; as, nostras, 
nostratis, but both are defective. 

(b.) Nostras is found in the nominative and genitive singular, in 
the nominative plural, (masc. and fern., nostrates, neut. nostratid), 
and in the ablative, (nostratibus). Cujas or quojas occurs in the 
nominative, genitive and accusative (cujatem masc.) singular, and in 
the nominative plural, masc. (cujates). Cf. § 137, 6. — Nostratis and 
cujatis (or quojatis) also occur in the nominative. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

5. To the adjective pronouns may be added certain adjectives 
of so general a meaning, that they partake, in some degree, of 
the character of pronouns. Of this kind are : — 

(1.) (a.) Alius, ullus, nullus, and nonnullus, which answer to the 
question, who? 

(b.) Alter, neuter, alteruter, utervis, and uterlibet, which answer to 
the question, uter ? which of two ? 

(2.) Adjectives denoting quality, size, or number, in a general 
way. These stand in relation to one another, and are hence called 
correlatives. 

Remark. . The relatives and interrogatives of this class begin with qu, and 
are alike in form. The indefinites are formed from the relatives by prefixing 
all. The demonstratives begin with t, and are sometimes strengthened by dem. 
A general relative, having a meaning more general than the relative, is formed 
by doubling the simple relative, or by affixing to it the termination cumque. 
A general indefinite is formed by annexing libet or vis to the relative. 

(3.) Their mutual relation is denoted by the following table, with 
which may be compared the adverbial correlatives, § 191, R. 1. 

Interrog. Demonstr. Relat. Relat. general. Indefin. Indef general. 

qualis? talis, qualis, { jStoSS^, } qualisllbet, 

*»»*«' { tautundem, } *"»*». { $&£££$ } ^™^ <^^> 



quot? tot, totldem, quot, S™L e aliquot, quotllbet, 



{quot-quot, 
quotcumque, 
quotus? totus, quotus, quotuscumque, (aliquotus), . 

Diminutives. 
quantulus? tantulus. . quantuluscumque. aliquantulum. . 

Note 1. The suffix cumque, which is used in forming general relatives, is 
composed of the relative adverb cum (quum) and the suffix que, expressive of 
universality, as in quisque and in adverbs, (see § 191). Cumque, therefore, ori- 
ginally signified ' whenever.' When attached to a relative, whether a pro- 
noun, adjective, or adverb, it renders the relative meaning more general; as, 
qui, who ; quicumque, whoever ; or, every one who. 

Note 2. Cujusmddi is sometimes used for qualis, and hujusmddi, istiusmddi, 
ejusmddi, and ejusdemmddi for talis. Cf. § 134, K. 5. 



§ 140, 141. VERBS. VOICES. 91 

VERBS. 

§ 140. A verb is a word by which something is affirmed 
of a person or thing. 

1 . That of which any thing is affirmed is called the subject of the 
verb. (2.) That which is affirmed of the subject is called the predi- 
cate. Cf. § 201. 

3. A verb either expresses an action or state ; as, puer legit, the 
boy reads ; aqua calet, the water is warm ; — or it connects an attri- 
bute with a subject ; as, terra est rotunda, the earth is round. 

4. All verbs belong to the former of these classes, except sum, I am, the 
most common use of which is, to connect an attribute with a subject. When 
so used, it is called the copula. 

§ HI. Verbs are either active or neuter. 

Note. Active and neuter verbs are sometimes called transitive and intransi- 
tive ; and verbs of motion are by some grammarians divided into active-transi- 
tive and active-intransitive, according as they require, or do not require, an ob- 
ject after them. 

I. An active or transitive verb expresses such an action as 
requires the addition of an object to complete the sense ; as, 
amo te, I love thee ; sequltur consulem, he follows the consul. 

II. A neuter or intransitive verb expresses such an action or 
state, as does not require the addition of an object to complete 
the sense ; as, equus currit, the horse runs ; gradior, I walk. 

Remark 1. Many verbs, in Latin, are considered as neuter, which are 
usually translated into English by active verbs. Thus indulgeo, I indulge, 
noceo, I hurt, pareo, I obey, are reckoned among neuter verbs. In strictness, 
such Latin verbs denote rather a state than an action, and their sense would 
be more exactly expressed by the verb to be with an adjective; as, ' I am in- 
dulgent, I am hurtful,' etc. Some verbs in Latin, which do not usually take 
an object after them, are yet active, since the object is omitted by ellipsis. 
Thus credo properly signifies to inti*ust, and, in this sense, takes an object; as, 
credo tibi salutem meant, I intrust my safety to you; but by ellipsis it usually 
means to believe ; as, crede mihi, believe me. 

To verbs belong voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

VOICES. 

(a.) Voice, in verbs, is the form by which they denote the re- 
lation of the agent to the action of the verb. 

(&.) Most active Latin verbs have, for this purpose, two forms, 
which are called the active and passive voices. 

1. A verb in the active voice represents the agent as acting 
upon some person or thing, called the object ; as, puer legit li- 
brum, the boy is reading a book. 



92 VERBS. — MOODS. § 142, 143. 

2. A verb in the passive voice represents the object as acted 
upon by the agent ; as, liber legitur a puero, a book is read by 
the boy. 

Rem. 2. By comparing the two preceding examples, it will be seen that they 
have the same meaning. The passive voice may thus be substituted at plea- 
sure for the active, by making the object of the active the subject of the pas- 
sive, and placing the subject of the active in the ablative case, with or without 
the preposition a or ab, according as it is a voluntary or involuntary agent. 
The active form is used to direct the attention especially to the agent as act-. 
ing; the passive, chiefly to exhibit the object as acted upon. In the one case 
the object, in the other the agent, is frequently omitted, and left indefinite; as, 
puer legit, the boy is reading, scil. librum, literas, etc., a book, a letter, etc. ; 
virtus lauddtur, virtue is praised, scil. ab liominibus, by men. 

The two voices are distinguished from each other by peculiar terminations. 
Cf. § 152. 

§ 14LS. 1. Neuter verbs have, in general, only the form of the 
active voice. They are, however, sometimes used impersonally in 
the passive voice. See § 184, 2. 

2. The neuter verbs audeo, I dare, fldo, I trust, gaudeo, I rejoice, and soleo, 
I am wont, have the passive form in the perfect and its cognate tenses ; as, 
ausus sum, I dared. Hence these verbs are called neuter passives, or semi- 
deponents. 

3. The neuter verbs vapulo, I am beaten, and veneo, I am sold, have an ac- 
tive form, but a passive meaning, and are hence called neutral passives. 

4. (a.) Deponent verbs have a transitive or intransitive significa- 
tion with only the passive form. They are called deponent verbs, 
from depono, to lay aside, as having laid aside their active form, and 
their passive signification ; as, sequor, I follow ; morior, I die. 

(b.) Some deponent verbs have both an active and a passive signification, 
especially in the perfect participle. These are sometimes called common verbs. 
Cf. § 162, 17. 

MOODS. 

§ 14:3. (a.) Moods (or modes) are forms of the verb, which 
denote the relation of the action or state, expressed by the verb, 
to the mind of the speaker or to some other action. 

(b.) Latin verbs have four moods — the indicative, the subjunctive, 
the imperative, and the infinitive. 

1. The indicative mood is used in independent and absolute 
assertions and inquiries ; as, amo, I love ; audisne ? dost thou 
hear? 

2. The subjunctive mood is used to express an action or state 
simply as conceived by the mind ; as, si me obsecret, redibo ; if 
he entreat me, I will return. 

3. llie imperative mood is used in commanding, exhorting, 
or entreating ; as, ama, love thou ; amanto, they shall love. 



§ 144, 145. VERBS. TENSES. 93 

4. The infinitive mood is used to denote an action or state in- 
definitely, without limiting it to any person or thing as its sub- 
ject ; as, virtus est vitium fugere, to shun vice is a virtue. 



TENSES. 

§ 144. Tenses are forms of the verb, denoting the time of 
the action or state expressed by the verb. 

1. Time admits of a threefold division, into present, past, and future ; and, 
in each of these times, an action may be represented either as going on, or as 
completed. From these two divisions arise the six tenses of a Latin verb, 
each of which is distinguished by its peculiar terminations. 

2. They are called the present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluper- 
fect, and future perfect tenses. 

Present ( action } amo, I love, or am loving; Present tense. 
Past < not com- > amabam, I was loving ; imperfect tense. 
Future ( pleted ; ) amdbo, I shall love, or be loving ; Future tense. 
Present ( action } amdvi, I have loved ; Perfect tense. 
Past < com- > amaveram, I had loved ; Pluperfect tense. 
Future ( pleted ; ) amavero, I shall have loved ; Future perfect tense. 

3. There is the same number of tenses in the passive voice, in 
■which actions not completed are represented by simple forms of the 
verb, and those which are completed by compound forms. 

Present ( action } amor, I am loved ; Present tense. 

Past < not com- > amdbar, I was loved ; Imperfect tense. 

Future ( pleted; ) amdbor, I shall be loved ; Future tense. 

Present ( action \ amatus sum, or fui, I have been loved; Perfect tense. 

Past < com- > audtus eram, or fueram, I had been loved ; Pluperfect. 

Future ( pleted; ) amatus ero, or fuero, I shall have beenloved; Future Perfect. 

§ 14«5. I. The present tense represents an action as now 
going on, and not completed ; as, amo, I love, or am loving. 

1. Any existing custom, or general truth, may be expressed by this tense; 
as, apud Parthos, signum datur tympdno ; among the Parthians, the signal is 
given by a drum. A general truth is sometimes also expressed by the perfect. 

2. The present tense may also denote an action which has existed for some 
time, and which still exists; as, tot annos btlla gero ; for so many years I have 
waged, and am still waging war. 

3. The present tense is often in narration used for the perfect indefinite. It 
is then called the historical present ; as, desiliunt ex equis, provdlant in primum ; 
they dismout, they fly forward to the front. 

II. The imperfect tense represents an action as going on at 
some past time, but not then completed; as, amabam, I was 
loving. 

1. The imperfect sometimes denotes repeated or customary past action ; as, 
legebam, I was wont to read. 

2. It may also denote an action which had existed for some time, and which 
was still existing at a certain past time; as, audiebat jamdudum verba; he had 
long heard, and was still hearing the words. 



9£ VERBS. TENSES. § 145. 

3. In letters, and with reference not to the time of their being written, bnt 
to that of their being read, the imperfect is sometimes used for the present 
as, expectdbam, I was expecting, (i. e. when I wrote). 

4. The imperfect also sometimes denotes the intending, preparing, or attempt- 
ing to act at a definite past time. 

III. The future tense denotes that an action will be going on 
hereafter, but without reference to its completion ; as, amdbo, 
I shall love, or shall be loving. 

IV. The perfect tense represents an action either as just com- 
pleted, or as completed in some indefinite past time ; as, amdvi, 
I have loved, or I loved. 

Remark. In the former sense, it is called the perfect definite ; in 
the latter, the perfect indefinite, historical perfect, or aorist. 

V. The pluperfect tense represents a past action as completed, 
at or before the time of some other past action or event ; as, lit- 
teras scripseram, quum nuncius venit ; I had written the letter, 
when the messenger arrived. 

VI. The future perfect tense denotes that an action will be 
completed, at or before the time of some other future action or 
event ; as, quum coenavero, profciscar ; when / shall have supped, 
I will go. 

Note 1. This tense is often, but improperly, called the future subjunctive. 
It has the signification of the indicative mood, and corresponds to the second 
future in English. 

Note 2. The imperfect, historical perfect, and pluperfect tenses are some- 
times called preterites or the preterite, tenses. 

Note 3. The present, imperfect, and future tenses passive, in English, do 
not express the exact sense of those tenses in Latin, as denoting an action 
which is, was, or will be, going on at a certain time. Thus laudor signifies, not 
' I am praised,' but ' I am in the act of being praised,' or, if such an expression 
is admissible, ' I am being praised.' 

Remark 1. The six tenses above enumerated are found only in 
the indicative mood. 

Rem. 2. The subjunctive mood, in the regular conjugation, has 
the present and past, but no future tenses. 

Note 4. The tenses of the subjunctive mood have less definiteness of meaning, in re- 
gard to time, than those of the indicative. Thus the present and perfect, besides their 
common signs, may or can, may have or can have, must, in certain connections, be 
translated by might, could, would, or should; might have, could have, etc. The tenses 
of this mood must often, also, be translated by the corresponding tenses of the indica- 
tive. For a more particular account of the signification of each of the tenses of the sub- 
junctive mood, see § 260. 

Rem. 3. The imperative mood has two tenses — a present and a 
future ; the former for that which is to be done at once, and the latter 
for that which is to be done in future. 

Rem. 4. The infinitive mood has three tenses — the present, the 
perfect, and the future ; the first of which denotes an incomplete, the 
6econd a completed action, and the last an action to be performed. 



§ 146-148. VERBS. — NUMBERS PERSONS. 95 

NUMBERS. 

§ 146. Number, in verbs, is the form by which the unity or 
plurality of their subject is denoted. Hence verbs, like nouns, 
have two numbers — the singular and the plural, Cf. § 35, 1. 

PERSONS. 

§ 14L7. Person, in verbs, is the form by which they denote 
the person of their subject. Hence in each number there are 
three persons — the first, second, and third. Cf. § 35, 2. 

1. The imperative present has only the second person in both 
numbers. The imperative future has in each number the second 
and third persons, but in the singular they have both the same form, 
-to in the active, and -tor in the passive voice. 

2. As the signification of the infinitive mood is not limited to any 
subject, it admits no change to express either number or person. 

3. The following are the terminations of the different persons of 
each number, in the indicative and subjunctive moods, in both 
voices : — 



Active. 


Passive. 


Person. 1. 2. 3. 


1. 2. 3. 


Singular, o, i, or m, s, t; 


r, ris, tur ; 


Plural. mus, tis, nt. 


mur, mini, ntur. 


These may be called personal tenninations. 


Remark 1. The perfect indicative active 


is irregular in the second ] 



singular and plural, which end in sti and stis, and in one of the forms of the 
third person plural, which ends in re. 

Rem. 2. The passive form above given belongs to the simple tenses only. 

Rem. 3. The pi-onouns of the first and second persons, ego, nos ; tu and vos, 
are seldom expressed in Latin as subjects of a finite verb, the several persons 
being sufficiently distinguished by the terminations of the verb. 

PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND SUPINES. 

§ 148. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, and 
partaking of its meaning, but having the form of an adjective. 

(1.) Like a verb, it has different voices and tenses; like an ad- 
jective, it has declension* and gender; and like both, it has two 
numbers. . 

(2.) Active verbs have usually four participles — two in the active 
voice, a present and a future ; as, avians, loving ; amaturus, about to 
love ; — and two in the passive voice, a perfect and a future ; as, ama- 
tus, loved, or having been loved ; amandus, to be loved. 

*See§§105, R. 2: ana 111, R. 



96 VERBS. CONJUGATION. § 149, 150. 

(3.) Neuter verbs have usually only the participles of the active 
voice. 

(4.) Deponent verbs, both active and neuter, may have the par- 
ticiples of both voices. 

2. (a.) Gerunds are verbal nouns, used only in the oblique 
cases, and expressing the action or state of the verb ; as, amandi, 
of loving, etc. 

(5.) Like other abstract nouns, they are found only in the singular 
number, and by their cases supply the place of a declinable present 
infinitive active. 

3. Supines also are verbal nouns of the fourth declension 
in the accusative and ..ablative singular ; as, amdtum, to love ; 
amdtu, to be loved. 

Remark. These also serve in certain connections to supply the 
place of the infinitive present both active and passive. The supine 
in urn is called the former supine ; that in w, the latter. The former 
is commonly used in an active, the latter in a passive sense. 

CONJUGATION. 

§ 14:0. 1. The conjugation of a verb is the regular for- 
mation and arrangement of its several parts, according to their 
voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

2. There are four conjugations, which are characterized by 
the vowel before re in the present of the infinitive active. 
In the first conjugation, it is a long ; 
In the second, . . . . . e long ; 
In the third, . . . . * . e short ; 
In the fourth, i long. 

Exception. Do, dare, to give, and such of its compounds as are of the first 
conjugation, have a short before re. 

§ 1 »>0. A verb, like a noun, consists of two parts — the root, 
and the termination. Cf. § 40, R. 10. 

1. The first or general root of a verb consists of those letters that 
are found in every part. This root may always be found by remov- 
ing the termination of the present infinitive. 

2. There are also two special roots, the first of which is found in 
the perfect, and is called the second root ; the other, found in the su- 
pine or perfect participle, is called the third root. 

3. In regular verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjuga- 
tions, the second root is formed by adding, respectively, dv, w, 
and iv, to the general root ; and the third root by a similar ad- 
dition of at, it, and it. 

Eemark. Many verbs, in each of the conjugations, form their second and 
third roots irregularly. 



§ 151, 152. VERBS. CONJUGATION. 97 

4. In the third conjugation, the second root either is the same 
as the first, or is formed from it by adding s ; the third root is 
formed by adding t. See § 171. 

Note. In the second and fourth conjugations, e and i before o are considered 
as belonging not to the root, but to the termination. In verbs whose second 
or third roots are formed irregularly, the general root often undergoes some 
change in the parts derived from them. 

5. The vowel which unites the general root with the remaining 
letters of the verb, is called the connecting vowel. Each conjugation, 
except the third, is, in a great degree, distinguished by a peculiar 
connecting vowel, which is the same as characterizes the infinitives. 
See § 149, 2. 

(a.) In the third conjugation, the connecting vowel is generally e or i. In 
the second and fourth conjugations, and in verbs in ia of the third, a second 
connecting vowel is sometimes added to that which characterizes the conjuga- 
tion ; as, a in doeeant, u in cqpiunt, etc. 

(6.) In verbs whose second and third roots are formed irregularly, the con- 
necting vowel often disappears, or is changed in the parts derived from those 
roots ; but it is almost always found in the parts derived from the first root. 

§ 1»"51. 1. From the first root are derived, in each voice, the 
present, imperfect, and future indicative ; the present and imperfect 
subjunctive ; the imperative, and the present infinitive. From this 
root are derived also the present participle, the gerund, and the fu- 
ture participle passive. 

2. From the second root are derived, in the active voice, the per- 
fect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative ; the perfect and plu- 
perfect subjunctive, and the perfect infinitive. 

3. (a.) From the third root are derived, in the active voice, the 
supine in urn, and the future participle ; the latter of which, with the 
verb esse, constitutes the future infinitive active. 

(&.) From this root are derived, in the passive voice, the supine in 
u, and the perfect participle ; from the latter of which, with the verb 
sum, are formed all the tenses which in the active are derived from 
the second root. The future infinitive passive is formed from the 
supine in urn, and iri, the present infinitive passive of the verb eo, 
to go. 

4. The present and perfect indicative, the supine in urn., and the 
present infinitive, are called the principal parts of the verb, because 
from the first three the several roots are ascertained, and from the 
last, the characteristic vowel of the conjugation. In the passive voice, 
the principal parts are the present indicative and infinitive, and the 
perfect participle. 

Note. As the supine in urn is wanting in most verbs, the third root must 
often be determined from the perfect participle, or the future participle active. 

§ 152. The following table exhibits a connected view of the 
verbal terminations, in all the conjugations. By annexing these to 
the several roots, all the parts of a verb may be formed. 



VEKBS. — TERMINATIONS. 



152. 



...u MM §§.* 
*&£« ins lili 



.J 4 



>2 5 o * 

s all 



is fa ^^ 

h sBas 

«? '? *7 'T 



i5 '9 



S3I3 



SI 

'7 "T 



>©,fa 

1% 



o « 



go; 



»->o 
,oa> 



03 "* 



3 a S 




>2 «3 10 g 



>© >© >© J £ 
iS & ieS '5 



103 ie3 ic! _q 
hh i-i CI CO -* 



io3 ia> ia> , 



->3is 
a a is a 



luff 



>p>p ~sT 

2 2 ,2 >2 



32 



C3 03 I© -~ 



>© >© >a> *£ 

,0,0 Sh iS 



fefcfefc fcfcfcfe 



>© ;© « ; 



>o>o „ 
io3 i© yf ■ 



a a 

a 3*5' 

,0,0 fl 

I03 103 03 • 



« 25 2 3 



sill 



*->a b>3 

a ios a iS 



»-> >a t-> >d 



~>03 



103 03 & J~ 



,03 03 



>© '<£> >;3 



Sh~>c3 vTjfa 



B 

H 
H 

co ... . 



«*1 

03 03 e3 



C3 S 



. >g>aja»a 

h sssa 

ios 103 >s .a 




c4 eo -* 



•tLOlf.vB 

-nluoj 



103 io3 ic3 

,0,0,0' 

o3 © © . 



'2 '2 >2 a 

.a .§.§•§ 
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03 03 03 .» 



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^3^^S 
,03 133 103 .3 



22 



£§; 



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C3 % '© •% 



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S .03 >© ^5 



<e" to 

S3 

io3 i© 



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S'fSlf 



»• «" - to 

sis? 

2 1 2 1 

103 © 103 •« 



-u >c3 -t-i yj 

>© ©>^S 

l I l l 






aflal 



152. 



VERBS. TERMINATIONS. 



99 



u u u ^ 

2 § i 5 

222§ 

cs o 3) .3 



c c a 'a 
cd o © s 



>s a >? ,g 

a a a § 



2 2 2 » 

•as io i© ;~ 



>©>©>© XI) 
ID I© 13) ,S 

>« u u 2: 

10) 113 I© I3J 



fc >£>©>©£ 

fc ... 

S rlNCO"* 



22£§ 



1111 

C3 « © -3 



5353 

sass 

Id) 10) 13) I© 



ft) ft) 



us >© >© .a 



>o >o o !2 



fill 



2 2 >S >o 



2 2 >° >o 

153 I© £ iS 
I I I I 



sal 
a) .— .h 



)3))3)>3)^ 

ie5 i© >3) ,3 



§ " ■. ■. : 

H 

M 

W 

g 



>© >© JlT, J" 

2 2 ' ° S 



22oo 

ics i© £ £ 



'9un)nj 



£££,£ 5 |222 



)3 >3 >3 ; 

c c c 

jj 3) 0) • 



si 

(Xi 



IC3 13) 



HNCO-* g 



5 s 



.... § 



TO CO 

C3 ft) 






)©>©>© vd £ © 

.... © 2 



sssa" 

2 2 2® 



lUdSVJ-d 






►1 



©22 
if '$ >S 

<a<a<2 



.22 no 



to '£ Ti to $ 

>©>©,© <- Jg ■ 



a 

a 1^3) »o) 



as 



a gs; 



alo 

$ u u 
Lo>© >© 




a 

a£ 

.3 CO 

to ft) 


CO CO CO 

j5 >s >b 




en co 


Perf. 
Plup. 
Fut. perf. 


C 

o 
n 






S 






H 




100 VERBS. — SUM. § 153. 

Remark 1. In analyzing a verb, the voice, person, and number, are ascer- 
tained by the personal terminations. See § 147, 3. The conjugation, mood, 
and tense, are, in general, determined by the letter or letters which intervene 
between the root of the verb and the personal terminations. Thus in amaba- 
mus, mus denotes that the verb is of the active voice, plural number, and first 
person ; ba denotes that it is of the indicative mood, imperfect tense ; and the 
connecting vowel a determines it to be of the first conjugation. So in amarem- 
ini, mini denotes the passive voice, plural number, and second person ; re, the 
subjunctive mood, imperfect tense ; and a, as before, the first conjugation. 

Rem. 2. Sometimes, the part between the root of the verb and the personal 
termination, does not precisely determine the conjugation, mood, and tense, 
but only within certain limits. In such cases, the conjugation may be learned, 
by finding the present tense in the dictionary, and if two forms are alike in the 
same conjugation, they can only be distinguished by the sense. Thus amemus 
and docemus have the same termination ; but, as amo is of the first, and doceo 
of the second conjugation, the former is determined to be the subjunctive, the 
latter the indicative, present. Regar may be either the future indicative, or 
the present subjunctive — bibimus either the present or the perfect indicative. 

§ 1«5S. Sum, I am, is called an auxiliary verb, because it is 
used, in conjunction with participles, to supply the want of simple 
forms in other verbs. From its denoting existence, it is sometimes 
called the substantive verb. 

Remark. Sum is very irregular in those parts which, in other verbs, are formed 
from the first root. Its imperfect and future tenses, except in the third person 
plural of the latter, have the form of a pluperfect and future perfect. It is 
thus conjugated: — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Pres. Indie. Pres. Infin. Per/. Indie. Fut. Part. 
Sum, es'-se, fu'-i, fu'-tu'-riis. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. sum, I am, su'-miis, we are, 

2. es, thou art,* es'-tis, ye\ are, 

3. est, lie is ; sunt, they are. 

Imperfect. 

1. e'-ram, I was, e-ra'-mus, we were, 

2. e'-ras, thou wast, e-ra'-tis, ye were, 

3. e'-rat, he was ; e'-rant, they were. 

Future, shall, or will. 

1. e'-ro, I shall be, er'-I-mus, we shall be, 

2. e'-ris, thou wilt be, er'-I-tis, ye will be, 

3. e'-rit, he will be ; e'-runt, they will be. 



* In the second person singular in English, the plural form you is commonly used, 
except in solemn discourse; as, tu es, you are. 

t The plural pronoun of the second person is either ye or you. 



§ 153. VERBS. SUM. 101 

Perfect have been, or was. 

1. fu'-i, I have been, fu'-i-mus, we have been t 

2. fu-is'-ti, thou hast been, fu-is'-tis, ye have been, 

3. fu'-it, he has been ; fu-e'-runt or re, they have been. 

Pluperfect. 

1. fu'-e-ram, I had been, fu-e-ra'-mus, we had been, 

2. fu'-e-ras, thou hadst been, fu-e-ra'-tis, ye had been, 

3. fu'-e-rat, he had been ; fu'-e-rant, they had been. 

Future Perfect, shall or will have. 

1. fu'-e-ro, I shall have been, fu-er'-i-mus, we shall have been, 

2. fu'-e-rfs, thou wilt have been, fu-er'-i-tis, ye will have been, 

3. fu'-e-rit, he will have been; fu'-e-rint, they will have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present, may, or can. 

1. sim, I may be, sl'-mus, we may be, 

2. sis, thou mayst be, sl'-tis, ye may be, 

3. sit, he may be ; sint, they may be. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should. 

1. es'-sem, I would be, es-se'-mus, we would be, 

2. es'-ses, thou wouldst be, es-se'-tis, ye would be, 
8. es'-set, he would be ; es'-sent, they would be. 

Perfect. 

1. fu'-e-rim, I may have been, fu-er'-!-mus, we may have been, 

2. fu'-e-ris, thou mayst have been, fu-er'-i-tis, ye may have been, 

3. fu'-e-rit, he may have been ; fu'-e-rint, they may have been. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have. 

1. fu-is'-sem, I icould have been, fu-is-se'-mus, we would have been, 

2. fu-is'-ses, thou wouldst have been, fu-is-se'-tis, ye would have been, 

3. fu-is'-set, he would have been ; fu-is'-sent, they would have been. 

IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. 1. es, be thou, es'-te, be ye. 

Fut. 2. es'-to, thou shalt be, es-to'-te, ye shall be, 

8. es'-t6, let Mm be ; sun'-to, let them be. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, es'-se, to be. 
Perfect, fu-is'-se, to have been. 

Future, fu-tu'-rus (a, urn), es'-se, or fo'-re, to be about to be. 
9* 



102 VERBS. POSSUM. § 154. 

PARTICIPLE. 
Future, fu-tu'-rus, a, um, about to be. 

§ Id*. Remakk 1. A present participle ens seems to have been an- 
ciently in use, and is still found in the compounds absens, prmsens, and potens. 

Rem. 2. The perfect fui, and its derivative tenses, are formed from an obso- 
lete fuo, whence come also the participle futurus, an old subjunctive present 

fuam, fuas, fuat ; , , fuant, and the forms fuiimus, perf. ind., fuve- 

rint, perf. subj., and fuvisset, plup. subj. 

Rem. 3. From fuo appear also to be derived the following : — 

Subj. imperf. fo'-rem, fo'-res, fo'-ret; , , fo'-rent. 

Inf. pres. fo'-re. 

These forms seem to have been contracted from fuerem, etc., and fuere. 
Fdrem is equivalent in meaning to essem, but the infinitive fire has, in most 
cases, acquired a future signification, equivalent to futurus esse. 

Rem. 4. Siem, sies, siet, sient, for sim, sis, sit, sint, are found in ancient 
writers, as are also escit for erit, escunt for erunt, ese, esetis, and esent, for esse, 
essetis, and essent. 

Rem. 5. Like sum are conjugated its compounds, absum, adsum, 
desum, insum, intersum, obsum, prcesum, subsum, and supersum. 

Rem. 6. Prosum, from the old form prod for pro, and sum, has d 
after pro, when the simple verb begins with e ; as, 

Ind. pres. pro'-sum, prod'-es, prSd'-est, etc. 
imperf. prod'-e-ram, prod'-e-ras, etc. 

Rem. 7. (a.) Possum is compounded of potis, able, and sum. 
They are sometimes written separately, and then pods is the same in 
all genders and numbers. 

(b.) In composition, is is omitted in potis, and t, as in other cases, coming be- 
fore s, is changed into s. In the infinitive, and imperfect subjunctive, esof the 
simple verb is dropped, as is also f at the beginning of the second root. In 
every other respect possum is conjugated like sum, wherever it is found; but 
the imperative, and the parts derived from the third root, are wanting. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Infn. Perf. Indie. 
Pos'-sum, pos'-se, pot'-u-I, I can, or I am able. 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 
pos'-sum, pontes, po'-test; pos'-sim, pos'-sls, pos'-sit; 

pos'-sii-mus, po-tes'-tis, pos'-sunt. pos-si'-mus, pos-sl'-tis, pos'-sint. 

Imperfect. 
pot'-e-ram, pot'-e-ras, pot'-e-rat; pos'-sem, pos'-ses, pos'-set; 

pot-e-ra'-mus, -e-ra'-tis, -e-raut. pos-se'-miis, -se'-tis, pos'-sent. 

Future. 
pot'-e-ro, pot'-e-ris, pot'-e-rit; 
po-ter / -I-mus, po-ter'-I-tls, pot'-g-runt. 

Perfect. 
pot'-u-i, pot-u-is'ti, pot'-u-Tt; po-tu'-e-rim, -e-rfs, -g-rlt; 

po-tu'-i-nius, -is'-tls, -e'-runt or -e're. pot-u-er'-i-mus, -i-tls, -e-rint. 



155. VERBS. — FIRST CONJUGATION, ACTIVE. 



103 



Pluperfect. 
po-tu'-e-ram, -e-ras, -e-rat ; pot-u-is'-s_em, -is'-ses,_ ; is'-sgt ; 

pdlu-e-ra'-mfis, -e-ra'-tls, -e-rant. pot-u-is-se'-mus, -is-se'-tls, -is -sent 

Future Perfect. 
po-tu'-e-ro, po-tu'-e-ris, po-tu'-e-rlt; _ 
pot-u-er'-i-mus, pot-u-eV-i-tis, po-tu'-§-rint. 

(No Imperative.) 

i INFINITIVE. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVE. 

Pres. pos'-se. Perf pot-u-is'-sg. po'-tens, able. 

Note The following forms are also found; potissum for possum, potessunt for 
polZt^Z Sid p%ssiem for passim passu* posskt and potessU for = 
and vossft, potessem for psom, i^esse for posse, and before a passive infinitive 
the v^iv/ forms potestur for' jxtfort, poteratur for j^rrf, and l»»rttir for 
posset.— Potis and ^o<e without es« are sometimes used tor potest. 

§ 155. FIRST CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Pres.Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. 

A'-mo, a-ma-re, a-ma-vi, a-ma-tum. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present, love, do love, am loving. 

Sing, a-mo, Hove, 

a'-mas thou lovest, 

a -mat, he loves ; 

Plur. a-ma-mus, we love, 

a-ma -tis, ye love, 

a -mant, ^ ^ye. 

Imperfect, was loving, loved, did love. 

^ Sing, a-ma-bam, I was loving, 

a-ma-bas, thou wast loving, 

a-ma-bat, he was loving ; 

Plur. am-a-ba -mils, we were loving, 

am-a-ba-tis, ye were loving, 

a-ma -bant, they were loving. 

Future, shall, or will. 

Sing, a-ma -bo, I shall love, 

a-ma-bis, thou wdt love, . 

a-ma -bit, he will love ; 

Plur. a-mab'-I-mus, we shall love, 

a-mab'-i-tis, ye will love, 

a-ma-bunt, they will love. 



104 



VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, ACTIVE. 



§155. 



Perfect. 

Sing, a-ma'-vi, 

am-a-vis'-ti, 

a-ma'-vit, 
Plur. a-mav'-i-miis, 

am-a-vis'-tis, 

am-a-ve'-runt or -re, 



loved, or have loved. 



I have loved, 
thou hast loved, 
he has loved; 
we have loved, 
ye have loved, 
they have loved. 



Pluperfect, had. 



Sing, a-mav'-e-ram, 
a-mav'-e-ras, 
a-mav'-e-rat, 

Plur. a-mav-e-ra'-miis, 
a-mav-e-ra'-tis, 
a-mav'-e-rant, 



I had loved, 
thou hadst loved, 
he had loved ; 
we had loved, 
ye had loved, 
they had loved. 



Future Perfect, shall, or will have. 



Sing. 



Plur. a 



a-mav'-e-ro, 
a-mav'-e-ris, 
a-mav'-e-rit, 

-ver'-i-mus, 
am-a-ver'-i-tis, 
a-mav'-e-rint, 



I shall have loved, 
thou wilt have loved, 
he will have loved; 
we shall have loved, 
ye will have loved, 
they will have loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 



Present. 
Sing, a'-mem, 

a'-mes, 

a-met, 
Plur. a-me'-miis, 

a-me'-tls, 

a-ment, 



may, or can. 

I may love, 
thou mayst love, 
he may love ; 
we may love, 
ye may love, 
they may love. 



Imperfect, might, could, 



Sing, a-ma'-rem, 

a-ma'-res, 

a-ma'-ret, 
Plur. am-a-re'-mus, 

am-a-re'-tis, 

a-ma'-rent, 

Perfect. 

Sing, a-mav'-e-rim, 
a-mav'-e-ris, 
a-mav'-e-rit, 

Plur. am-a-ver'-i-mus, 
am-a-ver'-l-tis, 
a-mav'-e-rint, 



/ would love, 
thou wouldst love, 
he would love ; 
we would love, 
ye would love, 
they would love. 

may, or can have. 

I may have loved, 
thou mayst have loved, 
he may have loved; 
we may have loved, 
ye may have loved, 
(hey may have loved. 



§ 156. VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, PASSIVE. 105 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have. 

Sing, am-a-vis'-sem, I would have loved, 

am-a-vis'-ses, thou wouldst have loved, 

am-a-vis'-set, he would have loved ; 

Plur. am-a-vis-se'-mus, we would have loved, 

am-a-vis-se'-tls, ye would have loved, 

am-a-vis'-sent, they would have loved, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Sing, a'-ma, love thou ; 

Plur. a-ma'-te, love ye. 

Fut. Sing, a-ma -to, thou shalt love, 

a-ma'-to, he shall love ; 

Plur. ani-a-to'-te, ye shall love, 

a-man'-to, they shall love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, a-ma'-re, to love. 

Perfect, am-a-vis'-se, to have loved. 

Future, am-a-tu'-rus, (a, urn,) es'-se, to be about to love. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, a -mans, loving. 

Future, am-a-tu'-rus, a, um, about to love. 



GERUND. 

G. a-man'-di, of loving, 

D. a-man'-do, for loving, 

Ac. a-man'-dum, loving, 

Ab. a-man'-do, by loving. 

SUPINE. 

Former, a-ma'-tum, to love. 

§ 156. PASSIVE VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Infin. Perf. Part. 
A'-mor, a-ma'-rl, a-ma'-tiis. 



106 VERBS. — FIRST CONJUGATION, PASSIVE. §156. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present, am. 

Sing, a'-mor, I am loved, 

a-ma'-ris or -re, thou art loved, 

a-ma'-tur, he is loved; 

Plur. a-ma'-mur, we are loved, 

a-mam'-i-ni, ye are loved, 

a-man'-tur, they are loved. 

Imperfect, was. 

Sing, a-ma'-bar, I was loved, 

am-a-ba'-ris or -re, thou wast loved, 

am-a-ba'-tur, he was loved; 

Plur. am-a-ba'-mur, we were loved, 

am-a-bam'-I-ni, ye were loved, 

am-a-ban'-tur, they were loved. 

Future, shall, or will be. 

a-ma'-bor, I shall be loved, 

a-mab'-e-ris or -re, thou wilt be loved, 

a-mab'-I-tur, he will be loved; 

Plur. a-mab'-i-mur, we shall be loved, 

am-a-bim'-i-ni, ye will be loved, 

am-a-bun'-tur, they will be loved. 

Perfect, have been, or was. 

Sing, a-ma'-tus sum or fu'-I, I have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus es or fu-is'-ti, thou hast been loved, 

a-ma'-tus est or fu'-it, he has been loved; 

Plur. a-ma'-ti su'-mus or fu'-i-mus, we have been loved, 

a-ma'-tl es'-tis or fu-is'-tis, ye have been loved, 

a-ma'-ti sunt, fu'e'-runt or -re, they have been loved. 

Pluperfect, had been. 

Sing, a-ma'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, I had been loved, 

a-ma'-tus e'-ras or fu'-e-ras, thou hadst been loved, 

a-ma'-tus e'-rat or fu'-e-rat, he had been loved; 

Plur. a-ma-ti e-ra'-mus or fu-e-ra'-mus, we had been loved, 

a-ma'-fi e-ra'-tis or fu-e-ra'-tis, ye had been loved, 

a-ma'-ti e'-rant or fu'-e-rant, they had been loved. 

Future Perfect, shall have been. 

Sing, a-ma'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-r5, J shall have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus e'-ris or fu'-e-rfs, thou wilt have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus e'-rit or fu'-e-rit, he will have been loved; 

Plur. &-ma'-ti er-i-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, we shall have been loved, 

a-ma'-ti er'-i-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, ye will have been loved, 

S-ma'-ti e'-ruut or fu'-e-rint, they will have been loved. 



§ 156. VERBS. — FIRST CONJUGATION, PASSIVE. 107 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present, may, or can be. 

Sing, a'-mer, I may be loved, 

a-me'-rfs or -re, thou mayst be loved, 

a-me'-tur, he may be loved; 

Plur. a-me'-mur, we may be loved, 

a-mem'-i-ni, ye may be loved, 

a-men'-tur, they may be loved* 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be. 

Sing, a-ma'-rer, I would be loved, 

am-a-re'-rls or -re, thou wouldst be loved t 

am-a-re'-tur, he would be loved; 

Plur. am-a-re'-mur, we would be loved, 

am-a-rem'-i-ni, ye would be loved, 

am-a-ren'-tur, they would be loved. 

Perfect, may have been. 

Sing, a-ma'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, I may have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus sis or fu'-e-ris, thou mayst have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus sit or fu'-e-rit, he may have been loved; 

Plur. a-ma'-ti si'-miis or fu-er'-i-mus, we may have been loved, 

a-ma'-ti si'-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, ye may have been loved, 

a-ma'-ti sint or fu'-e-rint, they may have been loved. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been. 

Sing, a-ma'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, / would have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, thou wouldst have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus es'-set or fu-is'-set, he would have been loved ; 

Plur. a-ma'-ti es-se'-mus or fu-is-se'-miis, we would have been loved, 
a-ma'-ti es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, ye would have been loved, 
a-ma'-ti es'-sent or fu-is'-sent, they would have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Sing, a-ma'-re, be thou loved; 

Plur. a-mam'-i-ni, be ye loved. 

Fut. Sing, a-ma'-tor, thou shalt be loved, 

a-ma'-tor, he shall be loved; 

Plur. (am-a-blm-i-ni, ye shall be loved), 

a-man'-tor, they shall be loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, a-ma'-ri, to be loved. 

Perfect, a-ma'-tus es'-se or fu-is'-se, to have been loved. 
Future, a-ma'-tum I'-ri, to be about to be loved. 



108 



VERBS. — SECOND CONJUGATION. 



§157. 



PAKTICIPLES. 
Perfect, a-ma'-tus, loved, or having been loved. 

Future, a-man'-dus, to be loved. 

SUPINE. 
Latter, a-ma'-tu, to be loved. 



Formation of the Tenses. 



From the first root, am, are de- 
rived 

Active. Passive. 

amo, amor. 

amdbam, nmdbar. 

amaoo, amaoor. 

amem, amer. 

amarero, amarer. 

aware. 

SLmator. 

amdri. 

amandus. 



Ind. pres. 

imperf. 

.M . 

Subj. pres. 

imperf. 

Jmperat. pres. ama, 

fut. oxadto, 

Inf. pres. amare, 
Part. pres. amcms, 

/««. 

Gerund. amandi. 



From the second root, From the third root, 
amav, are derived amat, are derived 
Active. Passive. 

Ind. perf. amavi, amatws sum, etc. 

- plup. amaveram, amatus eram, etc. 

fut. perf amavero, amatas ero, etc. 

Subj. perf. amaverim, amatas sim, etc. 

plup. amavissem, amatws essem, etc. 

Inf. perf. amavisse, amatws esse, etc. 

From the third root, 
Inf. fut. am&turus esse, amatzm iri. 
Part. fut. amsiturus. 
P er f amattts. 

Form. sup. am&tum. Lot. sup. amatM. 



§157 

ACTIVE 



Pres. Ind. 
Pres. Inf. 
Perf Ind. 
Supine. 



mo -ne-o. 
mo-ne'-re. 
mon'-u-I. 
mon'-I-tum 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

PARTS. 

Pres. Ind. mo'-ne-or. 
Inf. mo-ne'-ri. 



VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL 



Pres. 

Perf. Part, mon' 



-tus. 



JUDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 



I advise. 

Sing. mo'-ne-6, 
mo'-nes, 
mo'-net ; 

Plur. mo-ne'-miis, 
mo-ne'-tis, 
mo'-nent. 



7 was advising. 

S. mo-ne'-bam, 
mo-ne'-bas, 
mo-ne'-bat ; 

P. mon-e-ba'-mus, 
mon-e-ba'-tis, 
mo-ne'-bant. 



I am advised. 
Sing, mo'-ne-or, 



mo-ne -ns or 
mo-ne'-tiir ; 



Plur. mO-ne -mur, 
mo-nem'-i-ni, 
mo-nen'-tur. 



Imperfect. 



I was advised. 

S. mo-ne '-bar, 

mon-e-ba'-ris or -re, 
mon-e-ba'-tur ; 

P. mon-e-ba'-miir, 
mon-e-bam'-i-nl, 
mon-e-ban'-tiir. 



§157. 



VERBS. — SECOND CONJUGATION. 



109 



ACTIVE. 

I shall or will advise. 

S. mo-ne'-bo, 
mo-ne'-bis, 
mo-ne'-bit ; 

P. mo-neb'-i-mus, 
mo-neb'-i-tis, 
mo-ne'-bunt. 



/ advised or have advised. 
S. mon'-u-I, 

mon-u-is'-ti, 

mon'-u-it ; 
P. mo-nu'-i-mus, 

mon-u-is'-tis, 

mon-u-e'-runt or -re. 



Future. 



PASSIVE. 

I shall or will be advised. 

S. mo-ne'-bor, 

mo-neb'-e-ris or -re, 
mo-neb'-i-tur ; 

P. mo-neb'-i-miir, 
mon-e-bim'-i-ni, 
mon-e-bun'-tur. 



Perfect. 



/ was or have been advised. 

S. mon'-I-tiis sum or fu'-i, 
mon'-i-tus es or fu-is'-tl, 
mon'-i-tus est or fu'-it ; 

P. mon'-i-tl su'-mus or fu'-i-mus, 
mon'-i-ti es'-tis or fu-is'-tis, 
mon'-i-ti sunt, fu-e'-runt or -re. 



/ had advised. 

S. mo-nu'-e-ram, 
mo-nu'-e-ras, 
mo-nu'-e-rat ; 

P. mon-u-S-ra'-mus, 
mon-u-e-ra'-tis, 
mo-nu'-e-rant. 



/ shall have advised. 
S. mo-nu'-e-ro, 

mo-nu'-e-ris, 

mo-nu'-e-rit ; 
P. mon-u-er'-l-miis, 

mon-u-er'-a-tis, 

mo-nu'-e-rint. 



Pluperfect 

I had been advised. 
S. mon'-i-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, 
mon'-i-tus e'-ras or fu'-e-ras, 
m5n'-i-tus e'-rat or fu'-e-rat ; 
P. mon'i-tl e-ra'-mus or fu-e-ra'-miis, 
mon'-i-ti e-ra'-tis or fu-e-ra'-tis, 
mon'-I-ti e'-rant or fu'-e-rant. 

Future Perfect. 

i" shall have been advised. 
S. mon'-i-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, 
mon'-i-tus e'-ris or fu'-e-rls, 
mon'-i-tiis e'-rit or fu'-e-rit ; 
P. mon'-i-ti er'-i-miis or fu-er'-i-mus, 
mon'-i-ti er'-I-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 
mon'-i-ti e'-runt or fu'-e-rint. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



/ may or can advise. 
S. mo'-ne-am, 
mo'-ne-as, 
mo'-ne-at ; 
P. mo-ne-a -mus, 
mo-ne-a'-tis, 
mo'-ne-ant. 
10 



Present. 

/ may or can be advised. 
S. mo'-ne-ar, 

mo-ne-a'-ris or -re, 
mo-ne-a'-tur ; 
P. mo-ne-a-miir, 
mo-ne-am'-i-nl, 
mo-ne-an'-tur. 



110 



VERBS. — SECOND CONJUGATION. 



§157. 



ACTIVE. 



Imperfect. 



PASSIVE. 



I might, could, would, or should 
advise. 
S. mo-ne'-rem, 
mo-ne'-res, 
mo-ne'-ret ; 
P. mon-e-re'-nms, 
mon-e-re'-tis, 
mo-ne'-rent. 



I might, could, would, or should 
be advised. 
S. mo-ne'-rer, 

mon-e-re'-ris or -re, 
mon-e-re'-tur ; 
P. mon-e-re'-mur, 
mon-e-rem'-I-ni, 
mon-e-ren'-tur. 



I may have advised. 

S. mo-nu'-e-rlm, 
mo-nu'-e-rls, 
mo-nu'-e-rit ; 

P. mon-u-er'-i-miis, 
mon-u-er'-i-tis, 
mo-nu'-e-rint. 



I might, could, would, or 
should have advised. 
S. mon-u-is'-sem, 

mon-u-is'-ses, 

mon-u-is'-set ; 
P. mon-u-is-se'-nms, 

mon-u-is-se'-tis, 

mon-u-is'-sent. 



Perfect 

I may have been advised. 

S. mon'-i-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, 
mon'-i-tus sis or fu'-e-ris, 
mon'-i-tus sit or fu'-e-rit ; 

P. mon'-i-ti si'-mus or fu-er'-i-nms, 
mon'-i-ti si'-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 
mon'-i-ti sint or fu'-e-rint. 

Pluperfect. 
/ might, could, would, or should have 

been advised. 
S. mon'-i-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
mon'-i-tus es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, 
mon'-i-tus es'-set or fu-is'-set ; 
P. mon'-i-ti es-se'-mus or fu-is-se'-miis, 
mon'-i-ti es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, 
mon'-i-tl es'-sent or fu-is'-sent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Pres. S. mo'-ne, advise thou; 
P. mo-ne'-te, advise ye. 
Fut. S. mo-ne'-to, thou shalt ad- 
vise, 
mo-ne'-to, he shall advise; 
P. mon-e-to'-te, ye shall ad- 
vise, 
mo-nen'-to, they shall ad- 
vise. 



Pres. S. mo-ne'-re, be thou advised; 
P. mo-nem'-i-m, be ye ad- 
vised. 
Fut. 8. mo-ne'-tor, thou shalt be 
advised, 
mo-ne'-tor, he shall be 
advised ; 
P. (mon-e-bim'-i-m, ye shall 
be advised,) 
mo-nen'-tor, they shall be 
advised. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. mo-ne'-re, to advise. 
Per/, mon-u-is'-se, to have advised. 
Fut. mon-i-tu'-rus es'-se, to be 
about to advise. 



Pres. mo-ne'-ri, to be advised. 
Per/, mon'-i-tus es'-se or fu-is'-se, 

to have been advised. 
Fut. mon'-i-tum I'-ri, to be about 

to be advised. 



§158. 



VERBS. — THIRD CONJUGATION. 



Ill 



ACTIVE 



PASSIVE. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Pres. mo'-nens, advising. j Per/, mon'-i-tus, advised. 

Fut. mon-i-tu'-rus, about to advise. \ Fut. mo-nen'-dus, to be advised. 

GERUND. 

G. mo-nen'-di, of advising, 
D. mo-nen'-do, etc. 
Ac. mo-nen'-dum, 
Ab. mo-nen'-do. 

SUPINES. 
Former, mon'-i-tum, to advise. I Latter. mon'-i-tu, to be advised. 



Formation of the Tenses. 



From the first root, mon, are de- 
rived, 
Active. Passive. 
moneo, moneor. 
moni'bam,moneba r. 
monebo, monebor. 
moneom, monear. 

imperf. monerem, monerer. 

Imperat. pres. mone, monere. 

• fut. moneto, monitor. 

Inf. pres. montVe, monerz. 
Pari. pres. monens, 

fut. mcmendus. 

Gerund. nionendi. 



lnd. pres. 
imperf. 

./*«• 

Subj. pres. 



From the second root, From the third root, 
monu, are derived, monit, are derived, 
Active. Passive. 

Ind. perf. monui, monittts sum, etc. 

plup. mormeram, momtits eram, etc. 

fut. perf. monuero, monltus ero, etc. 

Subj. perf. monuerim, monitus sim, etc. 

plup. mounissem, monltus essem,etc. 

Inf. perf. monuisse, monltws esse, etc. 

From the third root, 
Inf. fut. momturus esse, monltum iri. 
Part. fut. momturus, 

perf. monltus. 

Form. Sup. monitum. Lat. Sup. monlttt. 



§ 158. THIED CONJUGATION. 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Pres. Ind. re'-go. 
Pres. Inf. reg'-e-r6. 
Perf. Ind. rex'-i. 
Supine. rec'-tum. 



Pres. Ind. re'-gor. 
Pres. Inf. re'-gi. 
Perf. Part, rec'-tus. 



indicative mood. 



Present 



I rule. 

Sing, re'-go, 
re'-gis, 
re'-git ; 

Plur. reg'-i-mus, 
reg'-i-tis, 
re'-gunt. 



/ am ruled. 
Sing, re'-gor, 

reg'-e-ris or -re, 

reg'-i-tur ; 
Plur. reg'-i-mur, 

re-gim'-i-m, 

re-gun'-tur. 



112 



VERBS. — THIRD CONJUGATION. 



§158. 



ACTIVE. 



I was ruling. 

S. re-ge'-bam, 
re-ge'-bas, 
re-ge'-bat ; 

P. reg-e-ba'-mus, 
reg-e-ba'-tis, 
re-ge'-bant. 



I shall or will rule. 
S. re'-gam, 

re'-ges, 

re'-get ; 
P. re-ge'-miis, 

re-ge'-tis, 

re'-gent. 



I ruled or have ruled. 
S. rex'-i, 

rex-is'-ti, 

rex'-it ; 
P. rex'-i-miis, 

rex-is'-tis, 

rex-e'-runt or -re. 



I had ruled. 

S. rex'-e-ram, 
rex'-e-ras, 
rex'-e-rat ; 

P. rex-e-ra'-miis, 
rex-e-ra-tis, 
rex'-e-rant. 



PASSIVE. 



Imperfect. 



I was ruled. 

S. re-ge'-bar, 

reg-e-ba'-ris or - 
reg-e-ba'-tur ; 

P. reg-e-ba'-mur, 
reg-e-bam'-i-nl, 
reg-e-ban'-tur. 



Future. 



I shall or will be ruled. 
S. re'-gar, 

re-ge'-ris or -re, 

re-ge'-tur ; 
P. re-ge'-mur, 

re-gem'-i-ni, 

re-gen'-tur. 



Perfect. 

I was or have been ruled. 

S. rec'-tus sum or fu'-I, 
rec'-tiis es or fu-is'-tl, 
rec'-tiis est or fu'-it; 

P. rec'-tl sii'-mus or fu'-i-miis, 
rec'-tl es'-tis or fu-is'-tis, 
rec'-tl sunt, fu-e'-runt or -re. 

Pluperfect. 

I had been ruled. 

S. rec'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, 
rec'-tiis e'-ras or fu'-e-ras, 
rec'-tus e'-rat or fu'-e-rat ; 

P. rec'-ti e-ra'-miis ov fu-e-ra'-miis, 
rec'-tl e-ra'-tis or fu-e-ra'-tis, 
rec'-ti e'-rant or fu'-e-rant. 



Future Perfect. 

I shall have ruled. I shall have been ruled. 

S. rex'-e-ro, S. rec'-tiis e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, 

rex'-e-ris, rec'-tiis e'-ris or fu'-e-rls, 

rex'-e-rit ; rec'-tiis e'-rit or fu' e-rit ; 

P. rex-er'-i-miis, P. rec'-ti er'-i-miis or fu-er'-l-miis, 

rex-er'-I-tis, rec'-ti er'-i-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 

rex'-e-rint. rec'-ti e'-runt or fu'-e-rint. 



§158. 



VERBS. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



113 



ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

J may or can be ruled. 
S. re'-gar, 

re-ga'-ris or -re, 
re-ga' -tur ; 
P. re-ga' -mur, 
re-gam'-i-ni, 
re-san'-tur. 



I may or can rule. 
S. re'-gam, 

re'-gas, 

re -gat; 
P. re-ga'-mus, 

re-ga' -tis, 

re'-gant 

Imperfect. 

I might, could, would, or should 
rule. 
S. reg'-e-rem, 
reg'-e-res, 
reg'-e-ret; 
P. reg-e-re'-mus, 
reg-e-re'-tis, 
reg'-e-rent. 



I might, could, would, or should 
be ruled. 
S. reg'-e-rer, 

reg-e-re'-ris or -re, 
reg-e-re'-tur ; 
P. reg-e-re'-mur, 
reg-e-rem'-I-ni, 
reir-e-ren'-tur. 



/ may have ruled. 

S. rex'-e-rim, 
rex'-e-ris, 
rex'-e-rit ; 

P. rex-er'-i-mus, 
rex-er'-i-tis, 
rex'-e-rint. 



I might, could, would, or 

should have ruled. 

S. rex-is'-sem, 

rex-is'-ses, 

rex-is'-set ; 

P. rex-is-se'-mus, 

rex-is-se'-tis, 

rex-is-sent. 



Perfect. 

I may have been ruled. 
S. rec'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, 
rec'-tus sis or fu'-e-ris, 
rec'-tus sit or fu'-e-rlt ; 
P. rec'-tl si'-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, 
rec'-tl si'-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 
rec'-ti sint or fu'-e-rint. 

Pluperfect. 

I might, could, would, or should have 
been ruled. 

S. rec'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
rec'-tus es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, 
rec'-tus es'-set or fu-is'-set; 

P. rec'-tl es-se'-mus or fu-is-se'-miis, 
rec'-tl es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, 
rec'-tl es'-sent or fu-is'-sent. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Pres. S. re'-ge, rule thou, 
P. reg'-i-te, rule ye. 
Fut. S. reg'-i-to, thou shalt rule, 
reg'-i-to, he shall rule ; 
P. reg-I-to'-te, ye shall rule, 
re-gun'-to, they shall rule. 
10* 



Pres. S. reg'-e-re, be thou ruled; 
P. re-glm'-I-nl, be ye ruled. 
Fut. S. reg' ^-I-tor, thou shalt be ruled, 
reg'-i-tor, he shall be ruled; 
P. (re-gim'-i-ni, ye shall, etc.) 
re-gun'-tor, they shall, etc. 



114 VERBS. — THIRD CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 



§159. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. reg'-e-re, to rule. 
Per/, rex-is'-se, to have ruled. 
Fut. rec-tu'-rus es'-se, to be about 
to rule. 



Pres. re'-gi, to be ruled. 

Perf. rec'-tus es'-se or fu-is'-se, to 

have been ruled. 
Fut. rec'-tum I'-ri, to be about to 

be ruled. 



PAKTICIPLES. 



Pres. re'-gens, ruling. 

Fut. rec-tu'-rus, about to rule. 



Perf. rec'-tus, ruled. 

Fut. r£-gen'-diis, to be ruled. 



GEEUND. 

G. re-gen'-dl, of ruling. 
D. re-gen'-do, etc. 
Ac. re-gen'-dum, 
Ab. re-gen'-do. 

SUPINES. 
Former, rec'-tum, to rule. Latter, rec'-tii, to be ruled. 

Formation op the Tenses. 



From the first root, reg, are de- 
rived, 
Active. 
rego, 
reg 

regam, 
regam, 



2nd. pres. 

imperf. 

M 

Subj. pres. 

imperf. regerem, 

Imperat. pres. rege, 

fut. regito, 

Inf. pres. regere, 

Fart. pres. regeras, 



fut. 
Gerund. 



regendi. 



Passive. 
regor. 
regebar. 
regar. 
regar. 
regerer. 
regere. 
regitor. 
regi. 

regent. 



From the second root, From the third root, 
rex, are derived, rect. are derived, 
Active. Passive. 
Ind. perf. rext, rectus sum, etc. 

— — plup. rexeram, rectus eram, etc. 

fut. perf. rexero, rectus ero, etc. 

Subj. perf. rexmm, rectus sim, etc. 

plup. rexs'ssewi, rectus essem, etc. 

Inf. perf. rexisse. rectus esse, etc. 

From the third root, 
Inf. fut. Tectums esse, rectum iri. 
Part. fut. recturus. 

perf. rectus. 

Form. Sup. rectum. Lot. Sup. rectu. 



§ 159. Verbs in 10 of the Third Conjugation. 

Verbs in io of the third conjugation, in tenses formed from the 
first root, have, as connecting vowels, ia, ie, io, or iu, wherever 
the same occur in the fourth conjugation ; but where they have 
only a single connecting vowel, it is the same which character- 
izes other verbs of the third conjugation. They are all conju- 
gated like capio. 



§159. 



VERBS. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



115 



ACTIVE. 



PASSIVE. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Pres. Ind. ca'-pi-o, to take. Pres. Ind. ca'-pi-or, to be taken. 

Pres. Inf. cap'-e-re. Pres. Inf. ca'-pi. 

Perf. Ind. ce'-pi. Perf. Part, cap'-tus. 
Supine. cap'-tum. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 



S. ca'-pi-o, 

ca'-pis, 

ca -pit ; 
P. cap'-I-mus, 

cap'-i-tis, 

ca'-pi-unt. 



S. ca-pi-e'-bam, 
ca-pi-e'-bas, 
ca-pi-e'-bat ; 

P. ca-pi-e-ba'-mus, 
ca-pi-e-ba'-tis, 
ca-pi-e'-bant. 



S. ca'-pi-am, 
ca-pi-es, 
ca'-pi-et ; 

P. ca-pi-e'-miis, 
ea-pi-e'-tls, 
ca'-pi-ent. 



Imperfect. 



Future. 



S. ca'-pi-or, 

cap'-e-rls or -r€, 

cap'-i-tur ; 
P. cap'-i-mur, 

ca-pim'-i-ni, 

ca-pi-un'-tur. 



S. ca-pi-e'-bar, 

ca-pi-e-ba'-ris or -re, 
ca-pi-e-ba'-tur ; 

P. ca-pi-e-ba'-mur, 
c a-pi-e-bam'-i-ni, 
ca-pi-e-ban'-tur. 



S. ca'-pi-ar, 

ca-pi-e'-ris or -r€, 

ca-pi-e'-tiir ; 
P. ca-pi-e'-mur, 

ca-pi-em'-I-ni, 

ca-pi-en'-tiir. 



The parts formed from the second and third roots being entirely 
regular, only a synopsis of them is given. 



Perf. ce'-pi. 

Plup. cep'-e-ram. 
Fut.perf. cep'-e-ro. 



Perf. cap'-tus sum or fu'-I. 

Plup. cap'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram. 

Fut. perf. cap'-tus e'-ro or fu'-6-ro. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. 



ca -pi-am, 

ca-pi-as, 

ca-pi-at ; 

ca-pi-a'-mus, 

ca-pi-a'-tis, 

ca-pi-ant. 



S. ca'-pi-ar, 

ca-pi-a'-rls or -re, 

ca-pi-a'-tur ; 
P. ca-pi-a'-mur, 

ca-pi-am'-I-nl, 

ca-pi-an'-tiir. 



116 



VERBS. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



§160. 



ACTIVE 



S. eap'-e-rem, 
cap'-e-res, 
cap'-e-ret ; 

P. cap-e-re'-mus, 
cap-e-re'-tls, 
cap'-e-rent. 



Imperfect. 



PASSIVE, 



S. eap'-e-rer, 

cap-e-re'-ris or -r6, 
cap-e-re'-tur ; 

P. cap-e-re'-mur, 
cap-e-rem'-i-nl, 
cap-e-ren'-tur. 



Per/, cep'-e-rim. 
Plup. ce-pis'-sem. 



Per/, cap'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim. 
Plup. cap'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Pres. 2. S. ca'-pe ; P. 2. cap'-i-te. 
Fut. 2. cap'-I-to, cap-i-to-te, 
3. cap'-i-t5; ca-pi-un'-to. 



S. cap'-e-re ; P. ca-pim'-i-ni. 
cap'-i-tor, (ca-pi-em'-i-nl,) 
cap'-I-tor ; ca-pi-un'-tor. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. cap'-e-re. 
Per/, ce-pis'-se. 
Fut. cap-tu'-rus es'-se. 



Pres. ca'-pl. 

Per/, cap'-tus es'-se or fu-is' 

Fut. cap'-tum I'-ri. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Pres. ca'-pi-ens. 
Fut. cap-tu'-rus. 



Per/, cap'-tus. 
Fut. ca-pi-en'-dus. 



GERUND. 
G. ca-pi-en'-di, etc. 

SUPINES. 
Former, cap'-tum. Latter, cap'-tii. 



§ 160. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Pres. Ind. au'-di-o. 
Pres. Inf. au-dl'-re. 
Per/. Ind. au-dl'-vi. 
Supine. au-di'-tum. 



Pres. Ind. au'-di-or. 
Pres. Inf. au-di'-ri. 
Perf Part, au-di'-tus. 



§160. 



VERBS. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



117 



ACTIVE. PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



J hear. 
S. au'-di-o, 

au'-dis, 

au'dit ; 
P. au-di'-mus, 

au'-dl'-tis, 

au'-di-unt. 



I was hearing. 

S. au-di-e'-bam, 
au-di-e'-bas, 
au-di-e'-bat ; 

P. au-di-e-ba'-mus, 
au-di-e-ba'-tis, 
au-di-e'-bant. 



I shall or will hear. 
S. au'-di-am, 

au'-di-es, 

au'-di-et ; 
P. au-di-e'-miis, 

au-di-e'-tis, 

au'-di-ent. 



I heard or have heard. 
S. au-dl'-vi, 

au-dl-vis'-ti, 

au-dl'-vit ; 
P. au-div'-i-mus, 

au-di-vis'-tis, 

au-di-ve'-runt or -re. 



I had heard. 

S. au-div'-e-ram, 
au-dlv'-e-ras, 
au-div'-e-rat ; 

P. au-div-e-ra-mus, 
au-div-e-ra'-tls, 
au-div'-e-rant. 



/ am heard. 
S. au'-di-or, 

au-di'-ris or -re, 

au-di'-tur ; 
P. au-dl'-mur, 

au-dim'-i-ni, 

au-di-un'-tur. 



Imperfect. 

I was heard. 
S. au-di-e'-bar, 

au-di-e-ba'-ris or -re, 
au-di-e-ba'-tur ; 
P. au-di-e-ba'-mur, 
au-di-e-bam'-i-m, 
au-di-e-ban'-tiir. 

Future. 

/ shall or will be heard. 
S. au'-di-ar, 

au-di-e'-ris or -r€, 
au-di-e'-tur ; 
P. au-di-e'-mur, 
au-di-em'-i-nl, 
au-di-en'-tur. 

Perfect. 

/ have been or was heard. 
S. au-dl'-tus sum or fu'-i, 
au-di'-tus es or fu-is'-ti, 
au-dl'-tus est or fu'-it; 
P. au-di'-ti su'-mus or fu'-i-mus, 
au-di'-tl es'-tis or fu-is'-tis, 
au-di'-ti sunt, fu-e'-runt or -re. 

Pluperfect. 

7 had been heard. 
S. au-dl'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, 
au-di'-tus e'-ras or fu'-e-ras, 
au-dl'-tiis e'-rat or fu'-e-rat ; 
P. au-di'-ti e-ra'-mus or fu-e-ra'-mus, 
au-di'-ti e-ra^tis or fu-e-ra'-tis, 
au-di'-ti e'-rant or fu'-e-rant. 



118 



VERBS. — FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



§160. 



ACTIVE 

I shall have heard. 

S. au-div'-e-ro, 
au-div'-e-ris, 
au-div'-e-rit ; 

P. au-di-ver'-i-mus, 
au-di-ver'-i-tis, 
au-div'-e-rint. 



PASSIVE. 
Future Perfect. 

/ shall have been heard. 
S. au-di'-tiis e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, 
au-di'-tiis e'-ris or fu'-e-ris, 
au-di'-tiis e'-rit or fu'-e-rit; 
P. au-dl'-ti er'-i-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, 
au-di'-tl er'-i-tis or fu-er'-l-tis, 
au-dl'-ti e'-runt or fu'-e-rint. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. 



I may or can hear. 

S. au'-di-am, 
au'-di-as, 
au'-di-at ; 

P. au-di-a'-mus, 
au-di-a'-tis, 
au'-di-ant. 



I may or can be heard. 
S. au'-di-ar, 

au-di-a-ris or -re, 

au-di-a'-tur ; 
P. au-di-a'-mur, 

au-di-am'-i-nl, 

au-di-an'-tur. 



Imperfect. 



I might, could, would, or should 
hear. 



S. au-dl'-rem, 
au-di'-res, 
au-di'-ret ; 

P. au-dl-re'-mus, 
au-dl-re'-tis, 
au-dl'-rent. 



/ may have heard. 

S. au-dlv'-e-rim, 
au-dlv'-e-ris, 
au-div'-e-rit ; 

P. au-di-ver'-i-miis, 
au-di-ver'-i-tis, 
au-div'-e-rint 



/ might, could, would, or 
should have heard. 
S. au-dl-vis'-sem, 
au-di-vis'-ses, 
au-di-vis'-set ; 
P. au-dl-vis-se'-mus, 
au-dl-vis-se'-tis, 
au-di-vis'-sent. 



I might, could, would, or should 
be heard. 
S. au-dl'-rer, 

au-di-re'-ris or -re, 
au-di-re'-tur ; 
P. au-dl-re'-mur, 
au-dl-rem'-i-ni, 
au-di-ren'-tur. 



Perfect. 

I may have been heard. 

S. au-dl'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, 
au-di'-tus sis or fu'-e-ris, 
au-dl'-tiis sit or fu'-e-rit; 

P. au-dl'-ti sl'-miis or fu-er'-i-miis, 
au-di'-tl sl'-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 
au-dl'-ti sint or fu'-e-rint. 

Pluperfect. 

/ might, could, would, or should 
have been heard. 
S. au-dl'-tiis es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
au-di'-tiis es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, 
au-dl'-tiis es'-set or fu-is'-set; 
P. au-dl'-ti es-se'-miis or fu-is-se'-miis, 
au-di'-ti es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, 
au-dl'-ti es'-sent or fu-is'-sent. 



§160. 



VERBS. — FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



119 



ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Pres. S. au'-di, hear thou ; 
P. au-di'-te, hear ye. 
Fut. S. au-di'-to, thou shah hear, 
au-di'-to, he shall hear; 
P. au-di-to'-te, ye shall hear, 
au-di-un'-to, they shall 
hear. 



Pres. S. au-di'-re, be thou heard ; 
P. au-dim'-i-m, be ye heard. 
Fut. S. au-di'-tor, thou shalt be 
heard, 
au-di'-tor, he shall be 
heard; 
P. (au-di-em'-i-m, ye shall 
be heard,) 
au-di-un'-tor, they shall 
be heard. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. au-dl'-re, to hear. 
Perf. au-di-vis'-se, to have heard. 
Fut. au-di-tu'-riis es-se, to be 
about to hear. 



Pres. au-di'-ri, to be heard. 
Perf. au-di'-tus es'-se or fu— is'- 

se, to have been heard. 
Fut. au-di'-tum I'-ri, to be about 

to be heard. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Pres. au'-di-ens, hearing. 

Fut. au-di-tu'-rus, about to hear. 



Perf. au-di'-tus, heard. 

Fut. au-di-en'-dus, to be heard. 



GERUND. 

G. au-di-en'-di, of hearing. 

D. au-di-en'-do, etc. 

Ac. au-di-en'-dum, 

Ab. au-di-en'-do. 

SUPINES. 
Former, au-di'-tum, to hear. Latter, au-dl'-tii, to be heard. 



Formation of the Tenses. 



From the first root, and, are de- 
rived 

Active. Passive. 
Jnd. pres. audio, audior. 

imperf. audieoerm, audiebar. 

fut. andiam, auck'ar. 

Subj. pres. zudiam, audiar. 
imperf. audirem, audirer. 



Imperat. pres. audi, 



fut. 
Inf. pres. 
Part. pres. 

fut. 

Gerund. 



audito, 
audire, 
audiens, 

nudiendi. 



audire. 
auditor, 
audire'. 

zudiendus. 



From the second root, From the third root, 
audlv, are derived, audit, are derived, 
Active. Passive. 

Ind. perf. audivi, audltws sum, etc. 

plup. audiveram, auditws eram, etc. 

fut. perf. audivero, audltws ero, etc. 

Subj. perf. audiverm, audita sim, etc. 

plup. SLudlxissem, audltws essem,etc. 

Inf. perf audivtsse, audltws esse, etc. 

From the third root, 
Inf. fut. auditurws esse, audltwre iri. 
Part. fut. auditurws. 
perf. audita. 

Form. sup. audltum. Lat. sup. audita. 



120 DEPONENT VERBS. §161. 

DEPONENT VERBS. 

§ 101. Deponent verbs are conjugated like the passive 
voice, and have also all the participles and participial formations 
of the active voice. Neuter deponent verbs, however, want the 
future passive participle, except that the neuter in dum is some- 
times used impersonally. See § 184, 3. 

The following is an example of an active deponent verb of the first 
conjugation : — 

PEINCIPAL PARTS. 





Mi'-ror, mi-ra'-ri, mi-ra'-tus, to admire. 




INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Pres. ml'-ror, ml-ra'-ris, etc. 7" admire, etc. 
Imperf. mi-ra'-bar, etc. I was admiring. 
Fut. mi-ra'-bor, I shall admire. 
Per/. mi-ra'-tus sum or fu'-i, i" have admired. 
Plup. mi-ra'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, / had admired. 
Fut. Perf. mi-ra'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, I shall have admired. 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


Pres. 

Imperf. 

Perf 

Plup. 


ml'-rer, ml-re'-ris, etc. I may admire, etc. 
mi-ra'-rer, I would admire. 
mi-ra'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, i" may have admired. 
mi-ra'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, i" would have admired. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Pres. S. mi-ra'-re, admire thou ; 
Fut. S. mi-ra'-tor, thou shalt admire, 
mi-ra'-tor, he shall admire ; 



P. mi-ram'-i-ni, admire ye. 
P. (mlr-a-bim'-i-nl, ye shall, etc.) 
ml-ran'-tor, they shall, etc. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. mi-ra'-ri, to admire. 

Perf mi-ra'-tus es'-se or fu-is'-se, to have admired. 

Fut. Act. mir-a-tu'-rus es'-se, to be about to admire. 

Fut. Pass, ml-ra'-tum I'-rl, to be about to be admired* 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. mi'-rans, admiring. 

Perf. mi-ra'-tus, having admired. 

Fut. Act. mir-a-tu'-rus, about to admire. 
Fut. Pass, mi-ran'-dus, to be admired. 

GERUND. 
G. mi-ran'-di, of admiring, etc. 

SUPINES. 
Former, mi-ra'-tum, to admire. \ Latter, mi-ra'-tu, to be admired. 



§ 162. VERBS. — REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 121 

Kemarks on the Conjugations. 
Of the Tenses formed from the First Boot 

§ 1G«. 1. A few words in the present subjunctive of the first and 
third conjugations, in the earlier writers and in the poets, end in im, is, it, etc. ; 
as, edim, eais, edit, edimm; comedim, comedis, comedint; for edam, etc. come- 
dam, etc. ; duim, duis, duit, duint ; and perduim, perduis, perduit, perduint ; for 
dem, etc. perdam, etc. from old forms duo and perduo, for do and perdo : so cre- 
duis, creduit, and also creduam, creduas, creduat, for credam, etc. from the old 
form creduo, for credo. The form in im, etc. was retained as the regular form 
in sim and velim, from sum and volo, and in their compounds. 

2. The imperfect indicative in the fourth conjugation, sometimes, especially 
in the more ancient writers, ends in ibam and ibar, for iebam and iebar, and 
the future in Ibo and ibor, for iam and iar ; as, vestibat, Virg., largibar, Propert., 
for vesticbat, largiebar ; scibo, opperibor, for sciam, opperiar. Ibam and ibo were 
retained as the regular forms of eo, queo, and nequeo. Cf. § 182. 

3. The termination re, in the second person singular of the passive voice, is 
rare in the present, but common in the other simple tenses. 

4. The imperatives of dico, duco,fdcio, and fe.ro, are usually written die, due, 
far, and fer ; in like manner their compounds, except those compounds of 
fddo which change a into i; as, effice, confice; but calf dee also is found in 
Cicero; and in old writers dice, edice, addice, indice, duce, abduce, reduce, traduce, 
and face. Inger for ingere is rare. Scio has not sci, but its place is supplied 
by sclto, and scitdte is preferred to sclte. 

5. In the imperative future of the passive voice, but especially of deponents, 
early writers and their imitators sometimes used the active instead of the pas- 
sive form ; as, arbitrdto, amplexdto, utito, nitito ; for arbitrator, etc. ; and cen- 
senfo, utunto, tuento, etc. for censtntor, etc. — In the second and third persons 
singular occur, also, forms in -mino ; as, hortamino, veremlno, fruimino ; for 
hortdtor, etc. 

6. The syllable er was often added to the present infinitive passive by early 
writers and especially by the poets ; as, amarier for aradri, dicier for diet. 

Of the Tenses formed from the Second Root. 

7. (a.) When the second root ends in v, a syncopation and contraction often 
occur in the tenses formed from it, by omitting v, and sinking the first vowel 
of the termination in the final vowel of the root, when followed, in the fourth 
conjugation, by s, and in the other conjugations, by s or r ; as, audissem for 
aumvissem, amasti for amavisti, impUrunt for impleyerunt, ndram and nosse for 
noxvram and novisse. 

(b.) When the second root ends in iv, v is often omitted without contraction; 
as, audiero for audivero ; audiisse for audivisse. 

(c.) When this root ends in s or x, especially in the third conjugation, the 
syllables is, iss, and sis, are sometimes omitted in the termination of tenses de- 
rived from it; as, evasti for evas is ti, extinxti for extinx'isti, divisse for divisisse ; 
extinxem for extinxissem. surrexe for surrexisse ; accestis for accessisiis, justi for 
jussisti ; dixti for dixisti. So faxem for (facsissem, i. e.) fecissem. 

{d.) In the perfect of the first, second, and fourth conjugations, a syncope 
sometimes occurs in the last syllable of the root and the following syllable of 
the termination, especially in the third person singular; as, fumdi, audit, cupit; 
for fumdvit, audivit, cupimt. So, also, but rarely, in the first person; as, sepeli, 
enarrdmus ; for sepelivi, enarrdvimus. 

8. In the third person plural of the perfect indicative active, the form in ere 
is less common than that in erunt, especially in prose. 

11 



122 VERBS. REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. § 162. 

9. Ancient forms of a future perfect in so, a perfect and pluperfect subjunc- 
tive in sim and sem, and a perfect infinitive in se sometimes occur. They may, 
in general, be formed bv adding these terminations to the second root of the 
verb ; as, recepso, emissim, ausim from the obsolete perfect, ausi, from audeo, 
confexim and promissem: divisse and promisse. But -when the root ends in x, 
and frequently when it ends in 5, only o, im, em, and e, etc. are added ; a*, 
jusso, dixis ; tntellexes, percepset ; surrexe, sumse. V, at the end of the root, in 
the first conjugation, is changed into s ; as, levasso, locassim. U. at the end of 
the root, in the second conjugation, is changed into es ; as, habesso, licessit. 
Sometimes the vowel of the present is retained in these forms, though changed 
in the other parts derived from the second root; as, capso, faxo (facso), 
faxim (facsim). 

Note. Faxo expresses determination, ' I will,' or, • I am resolved, to make t> 
cause,' etc. The subjunctive faxit, etc., expresses a solemn wish; as, dii 
immortdles faxint. Ausim, etc. express doubt or hesitation, ' I might ven- 
ture,' etc. The perfect in sim is used also in connection with the present sub- 
junctive; as, guceso uii iu calamitdtes prohibessis, defendas, averruncesque. Cato. 

10. In the ancient Latin a few examples occur of a future passive of simi- 
lar form ; as, turbassitur, jussitur, instead of turbdtum fuerit, and jussus fue- 
rit. — A future infinitive active in sere is also found, in the first conjugation, 
which is formed by adding that termination to the second root, changing, as 
before, v into s ; as, expugnassere, impetrassere, for expugnaturum esse, etc. 

Of the Tenses formed from the Third Root. 

11. The supine in urn, though called one of the principal parts of the verb, 
belongs in fact to very few verbs, the whole number which have this supine 
not amounting to three hundred. The part called in dictionaries the supine 
in urn must therefore, in most cases, be considered as the neuter gender of the 
perfect participle. 

12. In the compound tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, the 
participle is always in the nominative case, but it is used in both numbers, and 
in all genders, to correspond with the number and gender of the subject of the 
verb ; as, amdtus, -a, -um, est ; amdti, -at, -a, sunt, etc. 

(1.) Fui, fueram, fueritn, fuissem, &n<± fuisse, are seldom used in the com- 
pound tenses of deponent verbs, and not so often as sum, etc., in those of other 
verbs, but when used they have generally the same sense. It is to be remark- 
ed, however, that fui with the perfect participle usually denotes that which 
has been, but which no longer exists. In the pluperfect subjunctive, fdrem, 
etc., for essem, etc., are sometimes found. 

(2.) But as the perfect participle may be used in the sense of an adjective, 
expressing a permanent state, (see § 162, 22), if then connected with the tenses 
of sum its meaning is different from that of the participle in the same connec- 
tion ; epistola scripta est, when scripta is a participle, signifies, the letter has 
been written, but if scripta is an adjective, the meaning of the expression is, the 
letter is written, and ejristola scripta fuit, in this case, would signify, the letter 
has been Avritten, or, has existed as a written one, implying that it no longer 
exists. 

13. The participles in the perfect and future infinitive, are used only in the 
nominative and accusative, but in all genders and in both numbers; as, amdtus, 
-a, -um, esse or fuisse ; amdtum, -am, -um, esse or fuisse ; amdti, -m, -a, esse or 
fuisse ; amdtos, -as, -a, esse or fuisse ; and so of the others. With the infini- 
tive fuisse, amdtus, etc. are generally to be considered as participial adjectives. 

(1.) These participles in combination with esse are sometimes used as inde- 
clinable; as, cohortes ad me missum facias. Cic. Ad me, mea Terentia, scribis, 
te vicum venditurum. Id. 



§ 162. VERBS. — PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS. 123 

Periphrastic Conjugations. 

14. The participle in rus, joined to the tenses of the verb 
sum, denotes either intention, or being upon the point of doing 
something. This form of the verb is called the active periphras- 
tic conjugation. 

Remark 1. As the performance of the act depends either on the will of the 
subject, on that of others, or upon circumstances, we may say, in English, in 
the first case, ' I intend,' and in the others, ' I am to,' or ' I am about to ' (be or 
do any thing). 

INDICATIVE. 
Pres. amaturus sum, 7" am about to love. 
Imperf. amaturus eram, I was about to love. 
Fut. amaturus ero, I shall be about to love. 
Per/. amaturus fui, / was or have been about to love. 

Plup. amaturus fueram, I had been about to love. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. amaturus sim, I may be about to love. 
Imperf. amaturus essem, 7" would be about to love. 
Per/. amaturus fuerim, i" may have been about to love. 
Plup. amaturus fuissem, / would have been about to love. 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres. amaturus esse, to be about to love. 
Per/. amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love. 

Rem. 2. Fuero is scarcely used in connection with the participle in rus. 

Rem. 3. Amaturus sim and amaturus essem serve also as subjunctives to the 
future amdbo. The infinitive amaturus fuisse answers to the English, * I should 
have loved,' so that in hypothetical sentences it supplies the place of an infini- 
tive of the pluperfect subjunctive. 

Rem. 4. In the passive, the fact that anact is about to be performed is^ ex- 
pressed by a longer circumlocution ; as, in eo est, or futurum est, ut epistdla 
scribdtur, a letter is about to be written. So in eo erat, etc., through all the 
tenses. 

15. The participle in dus, with the verb sum, expresses neces- 
sity or propriety ; as, amandus sum, I must be loved, or deserve 
to be loved. With the various moods and tenses of sum, it forms 
a passive periphrastic conjugation ; — thus : 



INDICATIVE. 


£ 


>UBJUNCTIVE. 


Pres. 


amandus sum, 


Pres. 


amandus sim, 


Imperf. 


amandus eram, 


Imperf. 


amandus essem, 


Fut. 


amandus ero, 


Perf. 


amandus fuerim, 


Perf. 


amandus fui, 


Plup. 


amandus fuissem. 


Plup. 


amandus fueram, 






Fut. Perf. 


amandus fuero. 




INFINITIVE. 




Pres. 


amandus esse, 






Perf. 


amandus fuisse. 



124 VERBS. — RULES OP CONJUGATION. § 163. 

Rem. 5. The neuter of the participle in dus with est and the dative of a per- 
son, expresses the necessity of performing the action on the part of that person ; 
as, mihi scribendum est, I must write, etc., and so through all the tenses. 

Participles. 

16. The following perfect participles of neuter verbs, like those of active 
deponents, are translated by active participles : — ccendtus, having supped ; potus, 
having drunk; pransus, having dined; and sometimes jurdtus, having sworn. 
So also adultus, coalitus, conspirdtus, interitus, occdsus, obsoletus, and cretus. 

For the active meaning of osus and its compounds, see § 183, 1. 

1 7. (a.) The perfect participles of some deponent verbs have both 
an active and a passive sense ; as, adeptus libertatem, having obtain- 
ed liberty, or adeptd libertdte, liberty having been obtained. Cf. 
§ 142, 4, (6.) 

So abomindtus, comitdtus, commentdtus, complexus, confessus, contestdtus, de- 
testdtus, digndtus, dimensus, effdtus, emensus, ementitus, emeritus, expertus, exse- 
crdtus, interpretdtus, largltus, machindtus, meditdtus, mercdtus, metdtus, oblitus, 
opindtus, orsus, pactus, partitus, perfunctus, periclitdtus, pollicitus, populdtus, 
depopuldtus, stipuldtus, testdtus, ultus, venerdtus. 

(&.) The participle in dus, of deponent verbs, is commonly pas- 
sive. 

18. The perfect participles of neuter passive verbs have the signi- 
fication of the active voice ; as, gavlsus, having rejoiced. But ausus 
is used both in an active and a passive sense. 

19. The genitive plural of participles in rus is seldom used, ex- 
cept that of futurus. Venturorum is found in Ovid, exiturdrum, trans- 
iturdrum and periturorum in Seneca, and moriturorum in Augus- 
tine. 

20. In the third and fourth conjugations, the gerund and future 
passive participle (including deponents) sometimes end in nudum 
and undus, instead of endum and endus, especially when i precedes ; 
as, faciundum, audiundum, scribundus. Potior has usually potiundus. 

21. Many present and perfect participles are compounded with in, signifying 
not, whose verbs do not admit of such composition; they thus become adjec- 
tives; as, insciens, ignorant; impardtus, unprepared. 

22. Participles, when they do not express distinctions of time, become adjec- 
tives, and as such are compared; as, anions, loving; amantior, amantissimus. 
They sometimes also become substantives; as, prafectus, a commander; au- 
sum, an attempt ; commissum, an offence. 

Note. Many words derived from substantives, with the terminations of par- 
ticiples, dtus, itus, and utus, are yet adjectives; as, aldtus, winged; turrltus, 
turreted, etc. See § 128, 7. 

General Rules of Conjugation. 

§ 103. 1. Verbs which have a in the first root have it also in 
the third, even when it is changed in the second ; as, facio, factum; 
habeo, habitum. 



§ 164. VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 125 

2. The connecting vowel is often omitted in the second root, and 
in such cases, if v follows, it is changed into u. This happens in most 
verbs of the second conjugation. 

Remark. Some verbs of the first, second, and third conjugations 
prefix to the second root their initial consonant with the vowel which 
follows it, or with e ; as, curro, cucurri ; /alio, fefelli. This prefix is 
called a reduplication. 

Note 1. Spondeo and sto lose 5 in the second syllable, making spdpondi and stfti. 
For the verbs that take a reduplication, see §§ 165, R. 2 ; 168, N. 2 ; 171, Exc. 1,(6.) 

3. Yerbs which want the second root commonly want the third 
root also. 

4. Compound verbs form their second and third roots like the sim- 
ple verbs of which they are compounded ; as, audio, audlvi, auditum; 
exaudio, exaudlvi, exaudltum. 

Note 2. Some compound verbs, however, are defective, whose simples are 
complete, and some are complete, whose simples are defective. 

Exc. 1. Compound verbs omit the reduplication; but the com- 
pounds of do, sto, disco, posco, and some of those of curro, retain it. 

Exc. 2. Verbs which, in composition, change a into e in the first 
root, (see § 189, 1,) retain e in the second and third roots of the com- 
pound ; as, scando, scandi, scansum ; descendo, descendi, descensum. 

Exc. 3. (a.) When a, ce, or e, in the first root of the simple verb, 
is changed in the compound into i, (see § 189, 2,) the same is retained 
in the second and third roots, in case the third root of the simple verb is 
a dissyllable ; as, habeo, habui, habitum ; prohibeo, prohibui, prohibitum. 

(b.) But if the third root is a monosyllable, the second root of the 
compound has usually the same vowel as that of the simple, but 
sometimes changes a or e into i, and the third root has e ; as, facio, 
feci, factum; conficio, confeci, confectum; teneo, tenui, tentum; retX- 
neo, retinui, retentum; rapio, rapui, raptum; abripio, abripui, abreptum. 

Note 3. The compounds of cado, ago, frango, pango, and tango, retain a 
in the third root. See § 172. 

Exc. 4. The compounds ofpario, (Sre), and some of the compounds of do 
and cubo, are of different conjugations from their simple verbs. See do, cubo and 
pdiio in §§ 165 and 172. 

A few other exceptions will be noticed in the following lists. 



Formation of Second and Third Roots. 

FIRST CONJUGATION. 

§ 104:. In regular verbs of this conjugation, the second root 
ends in dv, and the third in at ; as, amo, amavz, amatw/w. 

The following list contains such regular verbs of this conjugation 
as are of most frequent occurrence. 

11* 



126 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



§164. 



Note. In this and subsequent lists, those verbs which are marked * are said to have 
no perfect participle ; those marked t to have no present participle. A dash( — ) after 
the present, denotes that there is no second root. The participles in rus and dus, and 
the supines in um and u which are in use, are indicated respectively by the letters r., d.^ 
m. : and u. Abundo, for example, has no perfect participle, no supine, no participle in 
dus ; but it has a present participle, and a participle in rus. 

In the lists of irregular verbs, those compounds only are given, whose conjugation dif- 
fers from that of their simples. 

When p. is subjoined to a deponent verb, it denotes that some of the parts which have 
commonly an active meaning, are used either actively and passively, or passively alone. 
Such verbs are by some grammarians called common. Cf. § 142, 4, (6.) 



*Abundo, r. to overflow. 

Accuso, m. r. d. to accuse. 

t Adumbro, to delineate. 

JEdif ico, r. d. to build. 

iEquo, r. d. to level. 

iEstlmo, r. d. to value. 

=*Ambulo, m. d. to walk. 

Amo, r. d. to love. 

fAmplio, d. to enlarge. 

Appello, d. to call. 

Apto, d. to fit. 

Aro, r. d. to plough. 

*t Ausculto, to listen. 

*f Autumo, to assert. 

fBasio, — , d. to hiss. 

*Bello, m. r. d. to wage 
war. 

fBeo, to bless. 

*Boo, to bellow. 

fBrevio, to shorten. 

fCseco, to blind. 

fCselo, to carve. 

fCalceo, d. to shoe. 

*f Calcitro, to kick. 

Canto, m. to sing. 

Capto, m. r. d. to seize. 

f Castigo, m. d. to chastise. 

Celebro, d. to celebrate. 

Celo, d. to conceal. 

Cesso, d. to cease. 

Certo, r. d. to strive. 

Clarao, to shout. 

Cogito, d. to think. 

Concilio, r. d. to conciliate. 

Considero, r. d. to con- 
sider. 

Cremo, d. to burn. — con- 
cremo, r. 

fCreo, r. d. to create. 

Crucio, d. to torment. 

Culpo, r. d. to blame. 

fCuneo, d. to wedge in. 

Curo, r. d. to care for. 

Dainno, m. r. d. to con- 
demn. 

Decoro, d. to adorn. 

*f Pellneo, to delineate. 

Desidero, r. d. to desire. 



Destino, d. to design. 

Dico, m. r. d. to dedicate. 

Dicto, to dictate. 

fDolo, to hew. 

Dono, r. d. to bestow. 

Dupllco, r. d. to double. 

Duro, r. to harden. 

fEffigio, to portray. 

tEnucleo, to explain. 

E qui to, to ride. 

Erro, to wander. 

Existimo, u. r. d. to think. 

Exploro, m. d. to search. 

Exsulo, m. r. to be ban- 
ished. 

Fabrico, d. to frame. 

fFatigo, r. d. to weary. 

Festlno, r. to hasten. 

Firmo, r. d. to strengthen. 

Flagito, m. d. to demand. 

*Flagro, r. to be on fire. — 
conflagro, r. — deflagro. 

Flo, d. to blow. 

Formo, r. d. to form. 

Foro, d. to bore. 

fFraudo, d. to defraud. 

fFreno, to bridle. 

fFrio, — , to crumble. 

Fugo, r. d. to put to flight. 

fFundo, r. to found. 

jFiirio, — , to madden. 

I Galeo, — , to put on a 
helmet. 

Gesto, d. to bear. 

Glacio, — , to congeal. 

Gravo, d. to weigh i " 

Gusto, d. to taste. 

Hablto, m. d. to dwell. 

*Halo, — , to breathe. 

Hiemo, m. to winter. 

*Hio, d. to gape. 

fHumo, r. d. to bury. 

Ignoro, r. d. to be igno- 
rant of. 

Impero, r. d. to command. 

f Impetro, r. d. to obtain. 

Inchoo, r. to begin. 

Iudago, r. d. to trace out. 



Indico, m. r. d. to shoic. 
flnebrio, — , to inebriate. 
Initio, to initiate. 
Inquino, to pollute. 
Instauro, d. to renew. 
Intro, r. d. to enter. 
Invito, d. to invite. 
Irrito, r. d. to irritate. 
Itero, u. d. to do again. 
Jacto, r. d. to throw. 
Judico, r. d. to judge. 
Jugo, d. to couple. 
Jugiilo, m. d. to butcher. 
Ju.ro, d. to swear. 
Laboro, r. d. to labor. 
Lacero, d. to tear. 
*Lacto, to suckle. 
fLanio, d. to tear in pieces. 
Latro, to bark. 
Laudo, r. d. to praise. 
Laxo, d. to loose. 
tLego, to depute. 
Levo, r. d. to lighten. 
Libero, r. d. to free. 
Libo, d. to pour out. 
Ligo, to bind. 
fLiquo, d. to melt. 
Lito, to appease. 
Loco, r. d. to 2>laee. 
Lustro, d. to swvey. 
Luxiirio, to be luxuriant. 
Macto, d. to sacrifice. 
Maculo, to spot, stain. 
Mando, r. d. to command. 
Mandiico, to chew. 
*Mano, to flow. 
Maturo, d. to ripen. 
Memoro, u. d. to tell. 
*Meo, to go. 

*Migro, u. r. d. to depart. 
*Milito, m. r. to serve as 

a soldier. 
fMlnio, d. to paint red. 
Ministro, d. to serve. 
Mitigo, d. to pacify. 
Monstro, r. to show.—' 

fdemonstro, d. 
Miito, r. d. to change. 



§165. 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



127 



Narro, r. d. to tell. 

Nato, m. r. to swim. 

*Xauseo, to be sea-sick. 

f Xavlgo, r. d. to sail. 

Xfivo, r. d. to perform. 

Xego, m. r. d. to deny. 

*No, to swim. 

Nomino, r. d. to name. 

Noto, d. to mark. 

Novo, r. d. to renew. 

Nudo, d. to make bare. 

Nuncupo, r. d. to name. 

Nuatio, m. r. to tell. — 
renuntio, d. 

*Nuto, r. to nod. 

Obsecro, m. r. d. to be- 
seech.. 

Obtrunco, r. to kill. 

Onero, r. d. to load. 

Onto, d. to wish. 

fOrbo, r. to bereave. 

Orno, r. d. to adorn. 

Oro, m. r. d. to beg. 

Paco, d. to subdue. 

Paro, r. d. to prepare. 
comparo, d. to compare. 

Patro, r. d. to perform. 

*Pecco, r. d. to sw*. 

fPio, d. to propitiate. 

Placo, r. d. to appease. 

Ploro, m. d. to bewail. 

Porto, u. r. d. to carry. 

Postulo, m. r. d. to de- 
mand. 

Privo, d. to deprive. 

Probo, m. u. r. d. to ap- 
prove. — c»mpr6bo, m. 

ProflTgo, d. to rout. 

Propero, d. to hasten. 

*tProp!no, to drink to. 

Propltio, d. to appease. 

Pugno, r. d. to fight. 

Pulso, d. to beat. 

Purgo, u. r. d. to cleanse. 



Piito, d. to reckon. 

Quasso, d. to sfta&e. 

Radio, to e?ra7 r«*/s. 

Rapto, d. to drag away. 

Recupero, m. r. d. to re- 
cover. 

Recuso, r. d. to refuse. 

Redundo, to overflow. 

Regno, r. d. to rule. 

fRepudio, r. d. to reject. 

Resero, d. to unlock. 

*fRetalio, — , to retaliate. 

Rigo, to water. 

Rogo, m. r. d. to ask. 

Roto, to w/iz'W around. 

Sacrifico, m. to sacrifice. 

Sacro, d. to consecrate. 

fSagino, d. to fatten. 

Sal to, r. to dance. 

Saluto, m. r. d. to salute. 

Sano, r. d. to heal. 

Satio, to satiate. 

tSatu.ro, to fill. 

Saucio, d. to wound.. 

*Secundo, to prosper. 

Sedo, m. d. to aWaz/. 

Servo, r. d. to &eep. 

*f Sibilo, to Mss. 

Sicco, d. to dry. 

Signo, r. d. to mark out. — 
assigno, m. 

Simulo, r. d. to pretend. 

Socio, d. to associate. 

*Somnio, to dream. 

Specto, m. r. d. to behold. 

Spero, r. d. to hope. 

*Spiro, to breathe. — con- 
spire — exsplro, r. — 
susplro, d. 

Spolio, m. d. to rob. 

Spumo, to foam. 

Stillo, to drop. 

Stimulo, to #oac?. 

Stlpo, to stuff. 



Sudo, to sweat. 

Suffoco, to strangle. 

Sugillo, d. to taunt. 

Supero, r. d. to overcome. 

Suppedl to, to afford. 

*SupplIco, m. to suppli- 
cate. 

*Susurro, to whisper. 

Tardo, to delay. 

Taxo, d. to rate. 

Temero, d. to defile. 

Tempero, r. d. to temper. 
— obtempero, r. to obey. 

Tento, ra. r. d. to try. 

Terebro, to bore. 

Termino, r. d. to limit. 

Titubo, to stagger. 

Tolero, u. r. d. to bear. 

Tracto, u. d. to handle. 

*f Tripfidio, to dance. 

Triumpho, r. to triumph. 

Trucldo, r. d. to ££2£ 

Turbo, d. to disturb. 

^Vaco, to 6e a£ leisure. 

*Vapulo, m. d. to oe oea^~ 
e^ Cf. § 142, 3. 

Vario, to diversify. 

Vasto, d. to lay waste. 

Vellico, to pluck. 

Verbero, r. d. to 6ea<. 

*VestIgo, to search for. 

Vexo, d. to toase. 

Vibro, d. to brandish. 

Vigilo, to watch. 

Violo, m. r. d. to violate. 

Vltio, d. to vitiate. 

Vito, u. d. to s/rara. 

Ululo, to /iomjZ. 

Umbro, r. to shade. 

Voco, r. d. to call. 

*V61o, to /«. 

Voro, r. to devour. 

Vulgo, r. d. to publish. 

Vulnero, d. to wound. 



§ 16*5. The following verbs of the first conjugation are either 
irregular or defective. 



*Crepo, crepui, to make a noise. *dis- 
crepo, -ui, or -avi. increpo, -ui or 
-avi, -I turn or -atum. *tpercrepo, — . 
*frecrepo, — . 

*Cubo, cubui, (perf subj. cubaris ; inf. 
cubasse), cubitum (sup.), to recline. 
incubo, -ui or avi, d. Those com- 
pounds of cubo v;kich take m before 
b, are of the third conjugation. 

Do, dedi, datum, m. r. d. to give. — 
So circumdo, pessumdo, satisdo, and 



venumdo ; the other compounds of do 

are of the third conjugation. See 

§ 163, Exc. 1. 
Domo, domui, domltum, r. d. to tame. 
Frico, fricui, frictum or fricatum, d. 

to rub. confrico, — , -atum. #oinfrf- 

co. defrico, — , -atum or -ctum. 
Juvo, jiivi, jutum, r. d., also juvatu- 

rus, to help, adjuvo, -juvi, -jutum, 

m. r. d. also adjuvaturus. 
*Labo, labasse,, to totter. 



128 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



§166. 



Lavo, lavi, rar. lavavi, lavatum, lautum 

or lotum; (sup.) lautum or lavatum, 

lavaturus, d. to wash, Lavo is also 

sometimes of the third conjugation. 
*Mico, micui, d. to glitter, dimico, 

-avi or -ui, -aturus. *emico, -ui, 

-aturus. *intermico, — . *promi- 

co, — , d. 
Neco, necavi or necui, necatum, r. d. 

to kill, eneco, -avi or -ui, -atum, or 

-ctum, d. finterneco, — , -atum. 
*tNexo, — , to tie. 
Plico, — , plicatum, to fold, duplico, 

-avi, -atum, r. d. multiplico and re- 

pllco have -avi, -atum. *supplico, 

-avi, m. r. appllco, -avi or -ui, 

-atum or -itum, -iturus. So impllco. 

— complico, -ui, -itum or atum. 

explico, -avi or -ui, -atum or -itum, 

-aturus or -iturus. 
Poto, potavi, potatum or potum, r. r. 

m. m. d. to drink, fepoto, -avi, -um. 

— *perpoto, -avi. 
Seco, secui, sectum, secatiirus, d. to 

Remark 1. The principal irregularity, in verbs of the first and second con- 
jugations, consists in the omission of the connecting vowel in the second root, 
and the change of the long vowels a and e in the third root into i. The v re- 
maining at the end of the second root, when it follows a consonant, is pro- 
nounced as u; as, cubo, (cubavi, by syncope cubvi), i. e. cubui; (cubdtum, by 
change of the connecting vowel,) cubxtum. Sometimes in the first conjugation, 
and very frequently in the second, the connecting vowel is omitted in the third 
root also; as, jw, (are ) juvi, jutum; teneo, (ere J tenui, tentum. In the second 
conjugation several verbs whose general root ends in d and g, and a few others 
of different terminations, form either their second or third root or both, like 
verbs of the third conjugation, by adding s ; as, rideo, rlsi, risum. 

Rem. 2. The verbs of the first conjugation whose perfects take a redu 
plication are do, sto, and their compounds. 

Rem. 3. The following verbs in eoare of the first conjugation, viz. beo, calceo, 
creo, cuneo, enucleo, illdqueo, colllneo, dellneo, meo, nauseo, screo ; eo and its com- 
pounds are of the fourth. 

§ 160. All deponent verbs, of the first conjugation, are regular, 
and are conjugated like miror, § 161 ; as, 



cut — *circumseco, — . *interseco, 
— , d. *perseco,-ui. praeseco, -ui, 
-turn or -atum. So reseco, d. 

*S6no, sonui, -aturus, d. to sound. 
*consono, -ui. So ex-, in-, per-, 
prse-sono. *resono, -avi. *assono, 
— . So circumsono and dissono. 

*Sto, steti, statiirus, to stand. *an- 
testo, -steti. So circumsto, intersto, 
supersto. — Its compounds with mo- 
nosyllabic prepositions have stiti; 
as, =*consto, -stiti, -statiirus. So ex- 
sto, insto, obsto, persto. *pr£esto, 
-stiti, -statiirus, d. *adsto or asto, 
-stiti, -stiturus. ^prosto, -stiti. So 
resto, restiti : but subj. perf. restave- 
rit, Propert, 2, 34, 53. *disto, — . 
So sub sto and supersto. 

*T6no, tonui, to thunder. So circum- 
tono. attono, -ui, -itum. intono, 
-ui, -atum. *retono, — . 

Veto, yetui, rarely avi, vetitum, to 
forbid. 



Abominor, d. to abhor. 

Adulor, d. to fatter. 

JEmulor, d. to rival. 

Ancillor, to be a handmaid. 

*Apricor, to bask in the 
sun. 

Arbitror, r. d. to think. 

Aspernor, d. p. to despise. 

Aucupor, r. p. to hunt 
after. 

Auxilior, p. to help. 

Aversor, d. to dislike. 

Bacchor, p. to revel. 

Calumnior, to censure un- 
fairly. 



Causor, to allege. 

*Comissor, m. to revel. 

Comitor, p. to accompany. 

Conci5nor, to harangue. 

*Confabulor, m. to con- 
verse together. 

Conor, d. to endeavor. 

fConspicor, to see. 

Contemplor, d. p. to view 
attentively. 

Criminor, m. p. to com- 
plain of. 

Cunctor, d. p. to delay. 

Deprecor, m. r. d. p. to 
deprecate. 



*fDigladior, to fence. 

Dignor, d. p. to deemwor- 
%. 

Dominor, p. to rule. 

Epiilor, r. d. to feast. 

*Famulor, m. to wait on. 

Fatur, (defect.) u. d. p. 
to speak. See § 183, 6. 

jFerior, r. to keep holiday. 

*Frumentor, m. to for- 
age. 

Furor, m. to steal. 

Glorior, r. d. to boast. 

Gratiilor, m. d. to con- 
gratulate. 



§167. 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



129 



Hariolor, to practise sooth- 
saying. 

Hortor, d. to encourage. 

Imitor, u. r. d. to imitate. 

Indignor, d. to disdain. 

Inf Itior, d. to deny. 

Insector, to pursue. 

Insldior, r. d. to lie in 
wait for. 

Interpreter, p. to explain. 

Jaculor, p. to hurl. 

Jocor, to jest. 

Lastor, r. d. p. to rejoice. 

Lamentor, d. p. to bewail. 

*fLignor, m. to gather 
wood. 

Luctor, d. to wrestle. 

Medicor, r. d. p. to heal. 

Meditor, p. to meditate. 

Mercor, m. r. d. p. to buy. 

Minor, to threaten. 

Mlror, u. r. d. to admire. 

Miseror, d. to pity. 

Moderor, u. d. to govern. 



Modulor, d. p. to modulate. 
Moror, r. d. to delay. 
fMutuor, p. to borrow. 
Negotior, r. to traffic. 
*|Nugor, to trifle. 
Obsonor, m. to cater. 
Obtestor, p. to beseech. 
Operor, to work. 
Oplnor, u. r. d. to think. 
Opitulor, m. to help. 
•fOtior, to be at leisure. 
Pabulor, m. d. to graze. 
Palor, to wander about. 
Percontor, m. to inquire. 
Periclitor, d. p. to try. 
fPiscor, m. to jish. 
Populor, r. d. p. to lay 

waste. 
Praidor, m. p. to plunder. 
Precor, m. u. r. d. to pray. 
Prcelior, to jight. 
Recordor, d. to recollect. 
Rlmor, d. to search. 
Rixor, to quarrel. 



=*RustIcor, to live in the 

country. 
Sciscltor, m. p. toinquire, 
*Sdtor, m. to ask. 
Scrutor, p. to search. 
Solor, d. to comfort. 
Spatior, to walk about. 
Speculor, m. r. d. to spy 

out. 
tStipulor, p. to bargain, 

stipulate. 
f Suavior, d. to kiss. 
Suspicor, to suspect. 
Testif icor, p. to testify. 
Testor, d. p. to testify. So 

detestor. 
Tutor, to defend. 
Vagor, to wander. 
Veneror, d. p. to venerate, 

worship. 
Venor, m. p. to hunt. 
Versor, to be employed. 
Vocif eror, to bawl. 



Note. Some deponents of the first conjugation are derived from nouns, 
and signify being or practising that which the noun denotes; as, ancilldri, to be 
a handmaid; harioldri, to practise soothsaying; from ancilla and haridlus. 

SECOND CONJUGATION. 

§ 107. Verbs of the second conjugation end in eo, and form 
their second and third roots in u and it; as, moneo, monuz, 
monitum. 

The following list contains most of the regular verbs of this conju- 
gation, and many also which want the second and third roots : — 



*Aceo, to be sour. 

*yEgreo, — , to be sick. 

*Albeo, — , to be white. 

*Arceo, d. to drive away; 
part. adj. arctus or ar- 
tus. The compounds 
change a into e; as, 
coerceo, d. to restrain. 
exerceo, r. d. to exer- 
cise. 

*Areo, to be dry. 

*Aveo, — , to covet. 

*Caleo, r. to be warm. 

*Calleo, — , to be harden- 
ed. *percalleo, to know 
well. 

*Calveo, — , to be bald. 

*Candeo, to be white. 

*Caneo, to be hoary. 

*Careo, r. d. to want. 

*Ceveo, — , to fawn. 



*Clareo, — , to be bright. 
*Clueo, — , to be famous. 
*Denseo, — , to thicken. 
*Diribeo, — , to sort the 

voting tablets. 
*D61eo, r. d. to grieve. 
*Egeo, r. to want. 
*Emineo, to rise above. 
*Flacceo, to droop. 
*Flaveo, — , to ' 
*Floreo, to blossom. 
*Fceteo, — , to be fetid. 
*Frigeo, — , to be cold. 
*Frondeo, — , to bear 

leaves. 
Habeo, r. d. to have. The 

compounds, except post- 

habeo, change a, into I; 

as, ad-, ex-, pro-hTbeo. 

cohlbeo, d. to restrain. 

inhibeo, d. to hinder. 



*fperhibeo,d. to report. 

tposthabeo, to postpone. 

praebeo, {for prashib- 

eo), r. d. to afford. 

*prsehibeo, — . debeo, 

{for dehabeo), r. d. to 

owe. 
*Hebeo, — , to be dull. 
*Horreo, d. to be rough. 
*Hiimeo, — . to be moist. 
*Jaceo, r. to lie. 
*Lacteo, — , to suck. 
*Langueo, — , to be faint. 
*Lateo, to lie hid. 
*Lenteo, — , to be slow. 
*Llceo, to be valued. 
=*Liveo, — , to be livid. 
*Maceo, — , to be lean. 
*Madeo, to be wet. 
^Masreo, — , to grieve. 
Mereo, r. to deserve. 



130 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



§168, 



fcommereo, tofuUy de- 
serve, fdemereo, d. to 
earn. temereo,/o serve 
out one's time. *fper- 
mereo, — , to go through 
service, promereo, to 
deserve. 

Moneo, r. d. to advise. 
admoneo, m. r. d. to re- 
mind, commoneo, to 
impress upon, praemo- 
neo, to forewarn. 

*Muceo, — , to be mouldy. 

*Nigreo, — , to be black. 

*Niteo, to shine. 

Noceo, m. r. to hurt. 

*01eo, to smell. 

*Palleo, to be pale. 



*Pareo, m. r. d. to obey. 
*Pateo, to be open. 
Placeo, to please. 
*Polleo, — , to be able. 
*Puteo, to stink. 
*Putreo, to be putrid. 
^Eenideo, — , to glitter. 
*Rigeo, to be stiff. 
*Eubeo, to be red. 
*Scateo, — , to gush forth. 
^Seneo, — , to be old. 
*Sileo, d. to be silent. 
*Sordeo, — , to be filthy. 
*Splendeo, — , to shine. 
^Squaleo, — , to be foul. 
*Strideo, — , to creak. 
*Studeo, d. to study. 
*Stupeo, to be amazed. 



*Sueo, — , to be wont. 

Taceo, r. d. to be silent. 

*Tepeo, to be warm. 

Terreo, d. to terrify. So 
deterreo, to deter, fab- 
sterreo, to deter, fce-n- 
terreo, fexterreo, tper- 
terreo, to frighten. 

*Timeo, d. to fear. 

*Torpeo, — , to be stiff. 

*Tumeo, to sioell. 

*Valeo, r. to be able. 

=*Vegeo, — , to arouse. 

*Vieo, — , to plait. Pa. 
vietus, shriveled. 

*Vigeo, to flourish. 

*Vireo, to be green. 

*U veo, — , to be moist. 



§ 108. The following verbs of the second conjugation are ir- 
regular in their second or third roots or in both. 

Note 1. As the proper form of verbs of the first conjugation is, o, avi, Stum, 
of the fourth io, ivi, Uum, so that of the second would be eo, evi, etum. Very 
few of the latter conjugation, however, retain this form, but most of them, as 
noticed in § 165, Eem. 1, drop in the second root the connecting vowel, e, and 
those in veo drop ve ; as, caveo, (cdyevi) cavi, (cdvetum or cdvitum) cautum. 
Others, imitating the form of those verbs of the third conjugation whose gen- 
eral root ends in a consonant, add s to form the second and third roots. Cf. 
$ 165, Eem. 1, and §171. 

Note 2. Four verbs of the second conjugation take a reduplication in the 
parts formed from the second root, viz. mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, and tondeo. 
See § 163, Eem. 



Aboleo, -evi, -itum, r. d. to efface. 

*Algeo, alsi, to be cold. 

Ardeo, arsi, arsum, r. to burn. 

Audeo, ausus sum, (rarely ausi, whence 
ausim, § 183, E. 1,) r. d. to dare. 

Augeo, auxi, auctum, r. d. to increase. 

Caveo, cavi, cautum, m. d. to beware. 

Censeo, censui, censum, d. to think. 
recenseo, -ui, -um or -itum. *per- 
censeo, -ui. *succenseo, -ui, d. 

Cieo, civi, citum, to excite. There is 
a cognate form, cio, of the fourth 
conjugation, both of the simple verb 
and of its compounds. The penult of 
the participles excitus and concitus 
is common, and that of accitus is al- 
ways long. 

*Conmveo, -nivi, to wink at. 

Deleo, -evi, -etum, d. to blot out. 

Doceo, docui, doctum, d. to teach. 

*Faveo, f avi, fuuturus, to favor. 

*Ferveo, ferbui, to boil. Sometimes 
fervo, vi, of the third conjugation. 

Fleo, flevi, fletum, r. d. to weep. 

Foveo, fuvi, fotum, d. to cherish. 



*Fulgeo, fulsi, to shine. Fulgo, of the 

third conjugation, is also in use. 
Gaudeo, gavisus sum, r. to rejoice. 

§ 142, 2. 
*Haereo, hsesi, hsesurus, to stick. So 

ad-, co-, in-, ob- haereo ; but *subhae- 

reo, — . 
Indulgeo, indulsi, indultum, r. d. to in- 
dulge. 
Jubeo, jussi, jussum, r. d. to order. 
*Luceo, luxi, to shine, polluceo, -luxi, 

-luctum. 
*Lugeo, luxi, d. to mourn. 
*Maneo, mansi, mansum, m. r. d. to 

remain. 
Misceo, miscui, mistum or mixtum, 

misturus, d. to mix. 
Mordeo, momordi, morsum, d. to bite. 

remordeo, -di, -morsxim, r. 
Moveo, movi, motum, r. d. to move. 
Mulceo, mulsi, mulsum, d. to soothe. 

permulceo, pei - mulsi, permulsum and 

permulctura, to rub gently. 
*Mulgeo, mulsi or mulxi, to milk. 

emulgeo, — , emulsum, to milk out. 



§ 169-171. VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS 



131 



Neo, nevi, netum, to spin. 
*Paveo, pavi, d. to fear. 
*Pendeo, pependi, to hang, *impen- 

deo, — . propendeo, — , propensum. 
Pleo, (obsolete), compleo, -evi, -etum, 

to fill. So the other compounds. 
Prandeo, prandi, pransum, r. to dine. 
Rldeo, risi, risum, m. r. d. to laugh. 
*Sedeo, sedi, sessum, m. r. to sit. 

The compounds with monosyllabic pre- 

positions change e into I, in the first 

root ; as, insideo, iusedi, insessum. 

*dissideo, -sedi. So praesideo, and 

rarely circumsldeo. 
Soleo, solitus sum and rarely solui, to 

be accustomed. § 142, 2. 
*Sorbeo, sorbui, to suck in. So *ex- 

sorbeo : but *resorbeo, — . =*absor- 

beo, -sorbui or -sorpsi. 



Spondeo, spopondi, sponsum, to pro- 
mise. See § 163, Rem. 

*Strideo, Idi, to whiz. 

Suadeo, suasi, suasum, r. d. to advise. 

Teneo, tenui, tentum, r. d. to hold. The 
compounds < hange c into I in the first 
and second roots ; as, detineo, deti- 
nui, detentum. *att!neo, -tinui. So 
pertlneo. 

Tergeo, tersi. tersum, to wipe. Tergo, 
of the third conjugation, is also in use. 

Tondeo, totondi, tonsum, to shear. The 
compounds have the perfect tondi. 

Torqueo, torsi, tortum, d. to twist. 

Torreo, torrui, tostum, to roast. 

*Turgeo, tursi, to swell. 

*TJrgeo or urgueo, ursi, d. to urge. 

Video, vldi, visum, m. u. r. d. to see. 

Voveo, vovi, votum, d. to vow. 



§ 100. Impersonal Verbs of the Second Conjugation. 



Decet, decuit, it becomes. 

Libet, libuit or libitum est, it pi 

is agreeable. 
Licet, licuit or licltum est, it is lawful, 

or permitted. 
Liquet, llquit, it is clear, evident. 
Miseret, miseruit or miseritum est, 

it moves to pity; miseret me, I pity. 
Oportet, oportuit, it behooves. 

Note. Lubet is sometimes written for libet, especially in the comic writers. 



Piget, piguit or pigltum est, d. it trou- 
bles, grieves. 

Pcenltet, pcenituit, poeniturus, d. it re- 
pents ; pcenltet me, I regret. 

Pudet, puduit or pudltum est, d. ; it 
shames; pudet me, I am ashamed. 

Tffidet, tseduit or taesum est, it disgusts 
or wearies, pertaedet, pertsesum est. 



§ 17©. Deponent Verbs of the Second Conjugation. 



Fateor, fassus, r. d. p. to confess. The 
compounds change a into I in the first 
root, and into e in the third ; as, con- 
flteor, confessus, d. p. to acknowl- 
edge. *tdiffiteor, to deny, profl- 
teor, professus, d. p. to declare. 

Llceor, licltus, to bid a jn-ice. 



*Medeor, d. to cure. 
Mereor, meritus, to deserve. 
Misereor, miseritus or misertus, to pity. 
Polllceor, pollicltus, p. to promise. 
Reor, ratus, to think, suppose. 
Tueor, tultus, d. p. to protect. 
Vereor, Veritas, d. p. to fear. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 

§ 171. In the third conjugation, when the first root ends 
with a consonant, the second root is regularly formed by adding 
s ; when it ends with a vowel, the first and second roots are the 
same : the third root is formed by adding t ; as, carpo, carpsa, 
carptum; arguo, argu?', argiitum. 

In annexing s and t, certain changes occur in the final consonant 
of the root : — 

1. The palatals c, g, gu, and also h, at the end of the first root, form with s 
the double letter x in the second root ; in the third root, c remains, and the 
others are changed into c before t; as, dico, (dicsi, i. e.), dixi, dictum; regOj 
(regsi, i. e.), rexi, rectum; veho, vexi, vectum ; coquo, coxi, coctum. 



132 VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. § 171. 

Note. Fluo and strvx) form their second and third roots after the analogy of 
verbs whose first root ends in a palatal or h. 

2. B is changed into p before s and t ; as, scrlbo, scripsi, scriptum. 

3. D and t, before s, are either dropped, or changed into s ; as, claudo, clausi; 
cedo, cessi; mitto, mlsi. Cf. § 56, 1, Kem. 1. After m, p is sometimes inserted 
before s and t ; as, sumo, sumpsi, sumptum. R is changed to s before s and t in 
gero and uro. 

4. Some other consonants are dropped, or changed into s, in certain verbs. 

Exc. 1. Many verbs whose first root ends in a consonant, do not 
add s to form the second root. 

(a.) Of these, some have the second root the same as the first, but the vowel 
of the second root, if a monosyllable, is long; as, 

Bibo, Excudo, Ico, Mando, Scabo, Solvo, Verro, 

Edo, Fodio, Lambo, Prehendo, Scando, Strido, Verto, 

Emo, Fugio, Lego, Psallo, Sldo, Tollo, Volvo; 

to which add the compounds of the obsolete cando, fendo, and nuo. 

(b.) Some make a change in the first root. Of these, some change a vowel, 
some drop a consonant, some prefix a reduplication, others admit two or more 
of these changes ; as, 

Ago, egi. Capio, cepi. Facio, feci. 

Findo, fidi. Frango, fregi. Fundo, fudi. 

Jacio, jeci. Linquo, liqui. Rumpo, rupi. 

Scindo, scldi. Sisto, stiti. Vinco, vlci. 

Those which have a reduplication are 

Cado, cecidi. Csedo, cecidi. Cano, cecini. 

Curro, cucurri. Disco, didici. Fallo, fefelli. 

Pago, (obs.) pepigi Parco, peperci. Pario, peperi. 

and pegi. Pedo, pepedi. Pello, pepuli. 

Pendo, pependi. Posco, poposci. Pungo, pupiigi. 

Tango, tetigi. Tendo, tetendi. Tundo, tutudi. 

Exc. 2. Some, after the analogy of the second conjugation, add u 
to the first root of the verb ; as, 

Alo, ami, etc. Consulo, Gemo, Eapio, Tremo, 

Colo, Depso, Geno, {obs.) Strepo, Volo, 

Compesco, Fremo, Molo, Texo, Vomo. 

Meto, messui ; and pono, posui; add su, with a change in the root. 

Exc. 3. The following, after the analogy of the fourth conjugation, 
add iv to the first root : — 

Arcesso, Cupio, Lacesso, Riido, Tero, dropping e. 

Capesso, Incesso, Peto, Qusero, with a change ofx into s. 

Exc. 4. The following add v, with a change in the root; those in 
no and sco dropping n and sc, and those having er before n changing 
it to re or rd : — 

Cresco, Pasco, Scisco, Sperno, Lino, Sero, 

Nosco, Quiesco, Cemo, Sterno, Sino, to sow. 

Exc. 5. (a.) The third root of verbs whose first root ends in d or t, 
and some in g, add s, instead of t, to the root, either dropping the d, t, 
and g, or changing them into s ; as, claudo, clausum ; defendo, de- 
fensum; cedo, cessum ; flecto, flexum; jigo, Jixum. But the com- 
pounds of do add it ; as, perdo, perditum. 



§172. 



VERBS. — SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



133 



(&.) The following, also, add s, with a change of the root : — 
Excello, Fallo, Pello, Spargo, Verro. 

Percello, Mergo, Premo, Velio, 

Exc. 6. The following add t, with a change of the root ; those 
having n, nc, ng, nqu, or mp at the end of the first root dropping n 
and m in the third : — 

Cerno, Fingo, Gero, Sero, Spemo, Stringo, Uro, 
Colo, Frarigo, Rumpo, Sisto, Sterno, Tero, Vinco; 

to which add the compounds of linquo, and verbs in sco with the second root 
inv; the latter drop sc before t; as, nosco, novi, notum; except pasco, which 
drops c only. 

Exc. 7. (a.) The following have it : — 

Blbo, Elicio, Molo, Pono, with a change of on into 6s. 

Geno, (obs. form o/*gigno,) Vomo, Sino, dropping n. 

(6.) The following, like verbs of the fourth conjugation, add it to 
the first root : — 



Arcesso, 
Facesso, 



Ciipio, 
Lacesso, 



Peto, Tero, dropping e. 

Quaero, with a change oft into s. 



For other irregularities occurring in this conjugation, see § 172-174. 

§ V72. The following list contains most of the simple verbs, 
both regular and irregular, in the third conjugation, with such of 
their compounds as require particular notice : — 



Acuo, acui, acutum, d. to sharpen. 

Ago, egi, actum, r. d. to drive. So cir- 
cumago, cogo, and perago. *ambi- 
go, — , to doubt. So satago. The 
other compounds change a into I, in 
the first root ; as, exigo, exegi, ex- 
actum, to drive out. *prodigo, -egi, 
to squander. See § 189, 2. 

Alo, alui, altum, and later ahtum, d. 
to nourish. 

*Ango, anxi, to strangle. 

Arguo, argui, argutum, d. to convict. 

Arcesso, -cessivi, -cessitum, r. d. to 
call for. Pass. inf. arcessiri or ar- 
cessi. 

*Batuo, batui, d. to beat. 

Blbo, bibi, bibltum, d. to drink. 

*Cado, cecidi, casurus, to fall. The 
compounds change a into I, in the first 
root, and drop the reduplication ; as, 
occido, -cidi, -casum, r. to set. 

Casdo, cecidi, cassum, r. d. to cut. The 
compounds change se into I, and drop 
the reduplication; as, occido, -cidi, 
-clsum. 

Cando, (obsolete,) synonymous with can- 
deo of the second conjugation. Hence 
accendo, -cendi, -censum, d. to kindle. 
So incendo, succendo. 

*Cano, ceclni, d. to sing. The com- 
pounds change a into I ; as, *concino, 
12 



-clnui. So occlno, praecmo. *acct- 
no, — . So incino, intercino, succl- 
no, recino. 

*Capesso, -Ivi, r. d. to undertake. 

Capio, cepi, captum, r. d. to take. So 
antecapio. The other compounds 
change a into I, in the first root, and 
into e in the third; as, decipio, dece- 
pi, deceptum. 

Carpo, carpsi, carptum, d. _ to pluck. 
The compounds change a into e ; as, 
decerpo, decerpsi, decerptum. 

Cedo, cessi, cessum, r. to yield. 

Cello,, (obsolete.) excello, -cellui, -eel- 
sum, to excel. *antecello, — . So 
praecello, recello. percello, -culi, 
-culsum, to strike. 

Cerno, crevi, cretum, d. to decree. 

*Cerno, — , to see. 

Cingo, cinxi, cinctum, d. to gird. 

*Clango, — , to clang. 

Claudo, clausi, clausum, r. d. to shut. 

The compounds change au into u ; as, 
occludo, occlusi, occhisum, to shut 
up. 

*t Claudo, — >, to limp. 

*|Clepo, clepsi, rarely clepi, to steal. 

Colo, colui, cultum, d. to tiu. tocculo, 
-cului, -cultum, d. to hide. 

Como, compsi, comptum, to deck. 

*Compesco, -pescui, to restrain. 



134 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



§172. 



Consulo, -siilui, -sultum, m. r. d. to 
consult. 

Coquo, coxi, coctum, m. d. to cook. 

Credo, credldi, creditum, r. d. to be- 
lieve. 

*Cresco, crevi, to grow, concresco, 
-crevi, -ere turn. 

Ciibo is of the first conjugation. Cf. 
§ 165. *accumbo, -cubui ; to lie down. 
So the other compounds which insert m. 

*Cudo, — , to forge, excudo, -cudi, 
-ctisum, d. to stamp. 

CupiOj cupivi, cupltum, d. to desire. 
Subj. imperf. cupiret. Lucr. 1, 72. 

*Curro, cucurri, cursurus, to run. 
concurro, succurro, and transcurro, 
drop the reduplication. ; the other com- 
pounds sometimes drop, and sometimes 
retain it ; as, decurro, decurri, and 
decucurri, decursum. =*antecurro, 
— . So circumcurro. 

*Dego, degi, d. to live. 

Demo, dempsi, demptxim, r. d. to take 
away. 

fDepso, depsui, depstum, to Jcnead. 

Dico, dixi, dictum, u. r. d. to say. 

*Disco, didici, discitiirus, d. to learn. 

*Dispesco, — , to separate. 

Dlvido, divisi, divisum, r. d. to divide. 

Do is of the first conjugation, abdo, 
-didi, -ditum, d. to hide. So con do, 
indo. addo, -didi, -ditum, r. d. to 
add. So dedo, edo, prodo, reddo, 
trado, vendo. fdido, -didi, -ditum, 
to distribute. So abdo, sub do. perdo, 
-didi, -ditum, m. r. d. abscondo, -di 
or -didi, -ditum or -sum. 

Duco, duxi, ductum, m. r. d. to lead. 

Edo, edi, esum, m. u. r. d. to eat. 

Exuo, exui, exiitum, d. to strip off. 

Emo, emi, emptum, r. d. to buy. So 
coemo. The other compounds change 
e to i ; as, eximo, -emi, -emptum. 

Facesso, -cessi, -cessitum, to execute. 

Facio, feci, factum, m. u. r. d. to do. 
Compounded with a preposition, it 
changes a into i in the first root, and 
into e in the third, makes -fice in the 
imperative, and has a regular passive. 
Compounded with other words, it re- 
tains a when of this conjugation, makes 
file in the imperative, and has the pas- 
sive, fio, factum. See § 180. 

Fallo, fefelli, falsum, d. to deceive. 
*refello, -felli, d. to refute. 

Fendo, {obsolete. ) defendo, -fendi, -fen- 
sum, m. u. r. d. to defend, offendo, 
-fendi, -fensum, d. to offend. 

Fero, tuli, latum, r. d. to bear. See 
§ 179. A perfect tetuli is rare. Its 
compounds are affero, attuli, allatum ; 



aufero, abstuli, ablatum; differo, 
distiili, dilatum; confero, contuli, 
collatum; infero, intiili, illatum; 
offero, obtiili, oblatum; effero, ex- 
tiili, elatum ; suffero, sustuli, subla- 
tum ; and circum-, per-, trans-, de-, 
pro-, ante-, praef ero, -tuli, -latum. 

*Fervo, vi, to boil. Cf. ferveo, 2d conj. 

Fido, — , fisus, to trust. See § 162, 18. 
confido, confisus sum or conf idi, to 
rely on. diffido, diffisus sum, to 
distrust. 

Figo, fixi,fixum,r. rarely fictum, to fix. 

Findo, fidi, fissum, d. to cleave. 

Fingo, finxi, fictum, d. to feign. 

Flecto, flexi, flexum, r. d. to bend. 

*Fligo, flixi, to dash. So cpnfligo. 
afnigo, -flixi, -flictum, to afflict. So 
infligo. profligo is of the first conju- 
gation. 

Fluo, fluxi, fluxum, (fluctum, obs.) r. 
to flow. 

Fodio, fodi, fossum, d. to dig. Old 
pres. inf. pass, fodiri: so also ef- 
fodiri. 

Frango, fregi, fractum, r. d. to break. 
The compounds change a into i, in the 
first root; as, infringo, infregi, in- 
fractum, to break in upon. 

*Fremo, fremui, d. to roar, howl. 

Frendo, — , fresum or fressum, to gnash. 

Frigo, frixi, frictum, rarely frixum, to 
roast. 

*Fugio, f ugi, f ugiturus, d. to flee. 

*Fulgo, — , to flash. 

Fundo, f udi, f usum, r. d. to pour. 

*Furo, — , to rage. 

*Gemo, gemui, d. to groan. 

Gero, gessi, gestum, r. d. to bear. 

Gigno, (obsolete geno,) genui, genitum, 
r. d. to beget. 

*Glisco, — , to grow. 

*Glubo, — , to peel, deglubo, — , 
-gluptum. 

Gruo, (obsolete.) *congruo, -grui, to 
agree. So ingruo. 

Ico, 3ci, ictum, r. to strike. 

Imbuo, imbui, imbutum, d. to imbue. 

*Incesso, -cessivi or -cessi, to attack. 

tlnduo, indui, indiitum, to put on. 

Jacio, jeci, jactum, d. to cast. The 
compounds change a into I in the first 
root, and into e in the tJiird. ($ 163, 
Exc. 3); as, rejicio,rejeci, rejectum. 

Jungo, junxi, junctum, r. d. to join. 

Lacesso, -cessivi, -cessitum, r. d. to pro- 
voke. 

Lacio, (obsolete. ) The compounds change 
a into i ; as, allicio, -lexi, -lectum, d. 
to allure. So flllcio, peUlcio. elicio, ^ 
-licui, -llcltum, to draw out. 



§172. 



VERBS. — SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



135 



Lsedo, laesi, laesum, m. r. to hurt. The 
compounds change ae into I ; as, illldo, 
illlsi, illisum, to dash against. 

*Lambo, Iambi, to lick. 

Lego, legi, lectum, r. d. to read. So 
allego, perlego, praelego, relego, sub- 
lego, and translego; the oilier conv- 
pounds change e into I ; as, colllgo, 
collegi, collectum, to collect. But the 
following add s to foiin the second 
root ; § 171, 1 ; diligo, -lexi, -lectum, 
to love, intelligo, -lexi, -lectum, u. 
r. d. to understand, negllgo, -lexi, 
-lectum, r. d. to neglect. 

Lingo, — , linctum, d. to lick. *delin- 
go, — , to lick up. 

Lino, llvi or levi, latum, d. to daub. 

*Linquo, Hqui, d. to leave, relinquo, 
-liqui, -lictum, r. d. delinquo, -Hqui, 
-lictum. So derelinquo. 

Ludo, lusi, lusum, m. r. to play. 

*Luo, lui, luiturus, d. to atone, abluo, 
-lui, -lutum, r. d. diluo, -lui, -lu- 
tum, d. So eluo. 

Mando, mandi, mansum, d. to chew. 

Mergo, mersi, mersum, r. d. to dip. So 
immergo; but pres. inf. pass, im- 
mergeri, Col. 5, 9, 3. 

MOto, "messui, messum, d. to reap. 

Metuo, metui, metutum, d. to fear. 

*Mingo, minxi, mictum, (sup.) to make 
water. 

Mlnuo, mlnui, mlnutum, d. to lessen. 

Mitto, misi, missum, r. d. to send. 

Molo, molui, molitum, to grind. 

Mungo, (obsolete.)^ emungo, -munxi, 
-munctum, to wipe the nose. 

Necto, nexi, nexum, d. to knit, innec- 
to, -nexui, -nexum. So annecto, 
coimecto. 

*Ningo or -guo, ninxi, to snow. 

Nosco, novi, notum, d. to learn, ag- 
nosco, -novi, -nitum, d. to recognize. 
cognosco, -novi, -nitum, u. r. d. to 
know. So recognosco. *internosco, 
novi, to distinguish between, proecog- 
nosco, — , pracognltum, to fore-know. 
*dignosco, — . So pra?nosco. ignos- 
co, -novi, -notum, d. to pardon. 

Nubo, nupsi, or nupta sum, nuptum, 
m. r. to marry. 

Nuo, (obsolete,) to nod. *abnuo, -nui, 
-nuiturus, d. to refuse. *annuo, -nui. 
So innuo, renuo. 

*01o, olui, to smett. 

Pando, — , passum or pansum, to open. 
So expando. dispando, — , -pansum. 

Pago, (obs. the same as paco whence pa- 
ciscor,) peplgi, pactum, to bargain: 
hence 

Pango, panxi or pegi, pactum, panctu- 



rus, d. to drive in. compingo, -p§gi, 
-pactum. So impingo. =*oppango, 
-pegi. *depango, — . So repango, 
suppingo. 

*Parco, peperci rarely parsi, parsurus, 
to spare. Some of the compounds 
change a toe; as, *comparco or com- 
perco. *imperco, — . 

Pario, peperi, partum, parlturus, d. to 
bring forth. The compounds are of 
the fourth conjugation. 

Pasco, pavi, pastum, m. r. d. to feed. 

Pecto, — , pexum, and pectltum, d. to 
comb. So depecto. repecto. 

*Pedo, pepedi. *oppedo, — . 

Pello, pepuli, pulsum, d. to drive. Its 
compounds are not reduplicated. 

Pendo, pgpendi, pensum, r. to weigh. 
The compounds drop the reduplication. 
See § 163, Exc. 1. 

Peto, petlvi, petltum, m. u. r. d. to ask. 

Pingo, pinxi, pictum, to paint. 

Pinso, pinsi, pinsltum, pinsum or pis- 
tum, to pound. 

*Plango, planxi, plancturus, to lament. 

Plaudo, plausi, plausum, d. to clap, ap- 
plaud. So applaudo. ^fcircum- 
plaudo, — . The other compounds 
change au into o. 

Plecto, — , plexum, d. to twine. 

*Pluo, plui or pluvi, to rain. 

Pono, posui, (anciently posivi), posl- 
tum, r. d. to place. 

*f Porrlcio, — , to offer sacrifice. 

*Posco, poposci, d. to demand. 

Prerao, pressi, pressum, r. d. to press. 
The compounds change e into I, in the 
first root; as, imprimo, impressi, 
impressum, to impress. 

Promo, prompsi, promptum, r. d. to 
bring out. 

*Psallo, psalli, to play on a stringed in- 
strument. 

Pungo, pupiigi, punctum, to prick. 
compungo, -punxi, -punctum. So 
dispungo, expungo. interpungo, — , 
-punctum. *repungo, — . 

Quaero, quneslvi, quaesitum, m. r. d. to 
seek. The compounds change s& into 
I ; as, requiro, requislvi, requisitum, 
to seek again. 

Quatio, — , quassum, to shake. The 
compounds change qua into cii; a*, 
concutio, -cussi, -cussum, d. dis- 
cutio, -cussi, -cussum, r. d. 

Quiesco, quievi, quietum, r. d. to rest. 

Rado, rasi, rasum, d. to shave. 

Rapio, rapui, raptum, r. d. to snatch. 
The compounds change a into I in the 



136 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



§172. 



first and second roots, and into e in 
the third; as, diripio, -ripui, -rep turn, 
m. r. So erfpio and praerfpio. 

BSgo, rexi, rectum, r. d. to rule. The 
compounds change e into I, in the first 
root; as, dirigo, direxi, directum. 
*pergo, (for perrigo), perrexi, r. to 
go forward, surge- (for surrigo), 
surrexi, surrectum, r. d. to rise. So 
porrigo (for prorigo), to stretch out. 

*Repo, repsi, to creep. 

Rodo, rosi, rdsum, r. to gnaw, ab-, ar-, 
e-, ob-, prse-rodo, want the perfect. 

*RMo, rudivi, to bray. 

Rumpo, rupi, ruptum, r. d. to break. 

Ruo, rui, rutum, ruiturus, to fall. 
dlruo, -rui, -rutum, d. So obruo. 
*corruo, -rui. So irruo. 

*Sapio, sapivi, to be wise. The com- 
pounds change a into I ; as, *reslpio, 
-sipivi or -slpui. *desipio, — , to be 
silly. 

*fScabo, scabi, to scratch. 

Scalpo, scalpsi, scalptum, to engrave. 

Sale- or sallo, — salsum, to salt. 

*Scando, — , d. to climb. The compounds 
change a into e ; as, ascendo, ascendi, 
ascensum, r. d. descendo, descendi, 
(anciently descendidi,) descensum. 

Scindo, scldi, (anciently sciscidi), scis- 
sum, d. to cut. 

Scisco, scivi, scitum, d. to ordain. 

Scribo, scripsi, scriptum, r. d. to write. 

Sculpo, sculpsi, sculptum, d. to carve. 

Sero, sevi, satum, r. d. to sow. conse- 
ro, -sevi, -si turn. So insero, r., and 
obsero. 

Sero, — , sertum, to entwine. lis com~ 
poundshave -serui ; as, assero, -serui, 
-sertum, r. d. 

*Serpo, serpsi, to creep. 

*Sido, sidi, to settle. Its compounds have 
generally sedi, sessum, from sedeo. 

*Sino, slvi, siturus, to permit, desino, 
desivi, desitum, r. § 284, R. 3, Exc. 2. 

Sisto, stlti, statum, to stop. *absisto, 
-stiti. So the other corapounds; but 
circumsisto wants the perfect. 

Solvo, solvi, solutum, r. d. to loose. 

Spargo, sparsi, sparsum, r. d. to spread. 
The compounds change a into e ; as, 
respergo, -spersi, -spersum ; but with 
circum and in, a sometimes remains. 

SpScio, (obsolete.) The compounds 
change e into I, in the first root; as, 
asplcio, aspexi, aspectum, d. to look 
at. inspicio, inspexi, inspectum. 
r. d. 

Sperno, spr6vi, spretum, d. to desjnse. 

*fSpuo, spui, to spit. *respuo, res- 
pui, d. 



Statue-, statui, statutum, d. to place. 
The compounds change a, into I; as, 
instituo, institui, instltutum, to in- 
stitute. 

Sterno, strari, stratum, d. to strew. 

*Sternuo, sternui, to sneeze. 

*Sterto, — , to snore. *f desterto, de- 

- stertui. 

*Stinguo, — , to extinguish, distingue-, 
distinxi, distinctum. So exstinguo, 
r. d. 

*Strepo, strepui, to make a noise. 

*Strido, stridi, to creak. 

Stringo, strinxi, strictum, r. d. to bind 
or tie tight. 

Struo, struxi, structum, d. to build. 

Sugo, suxi, suctum, to suck. 

Sumo, sumpsi, sumptum, r. d. to take. 

Suo, — , sutum, d. to sew. So consuo, 
dissuo. insuo, -sui, sutum. *as- 
suo, — . 

Tago, (very rare), to touch: Hence 

Tango, tetlgi, tactum, r. d. to touch. 
The compounds change a into i in the 
first root, and drop the reduplication ; 
as, contingo, contlgi, contactum, r. 

Tego, texi, tectum, r. d. to cover. 

*Temno, — , d. to despise, contemno, 
-tempsi, -temptum, d. 

Tendo, tetendi, tentum or tensum, to 
stretch. The compounds drop the re- 
duplication ; as, extendo, -tendi, -ten- 
turn or -tensum. So in-, os-, and re- 
tendo. detendo has tensum. The 
other compounds have tentum. 

*fTergo, tersi, tersum, to wipe. Ter- 
geo, of the second conjugation has the 
same second and third roots. 

Tero, trivi, tritum, d. to rub. 

Texo, texui, textum, d. to weave. 

Tingo or tinguo, ,tinxi, tinctum, r. d. 
to moisten, tinge. 

*Tollo, anciently tetuli, rarely tolli, d. 
to raise. The perfect and supine sus- 
tuli and sublatum from suffero take 
the place of the perfect and supine of 
tollo and sustollo. *sustollo, — , r. 
to raise up, to take away. =*attollo, 
— . So extollo. 

Traho, traxi, tractum, r. d. to draw. 

*Tremo, ti-emui, d. to tremble. 

Tribuo, tribui, tributum, r. d. to as- 
cribe. 

Trudo, trusi, trusum, to thrust. 

Tundo, tutudi, tunsum or tusum, to 
beat. The compounds drop the redu- 
plication, and have tusum. Yet con- 
tunsum, detunsum, obtunsum, and 
re tunsum, are also found. 

Ungo, (or -guo), unxi, unctum, d. to a 
anoint. 



§ 173. 



VERBS. — SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



137 



Uro, ussi, ustum, d. to burn. 

*Vado, — , to go. So supervado. The 
other compounds have vasi; as, *eva- 
do, evasi, r. So pervado; also inva- 
do, r. d. 

Veho, vexi, vectum, r. to carry. 

Velio, velli or vulsi, vulsum, d. to pluck. 
So avello, d., divello, evello. d., re- 
vello, revelli, revulsum. The other 
compounds have velli only, except in- 
tervello, which has vulsi. 



*Vergo, versi, to incline. 

Verro, — , versum, d. to brush. 

Verto, verti, vevsum, r. d. to turn. See 

§ 174, Note. 
Vinco, vlci, victum, r. d. to conquer. 
*Viso, — , d. to visit. 
*Vlvo, vixi, victiirus, d. to live. 
*V61o ; volui, velle (for vol ere), to be 

willing. See § 178. 
Volvo, volvi, volutum, d. to roU. 
Voino, vomui, vonritum, r. d. to vomit. 



Kemark. Those verbs in io (and deponents in ior), of the third conjugation, 
which are conjugated like capio (page 115) are. cdpio, cupio, fdcio, fddio. fugio, 
jdcio, pdrio, qudtio, rdpio, sdpio, compounds of lacio and specio, and grddwr, mo- 
lior, potior, and mdrior : but compare mdrior in § 174, and drior, and pdtior 
in § 177. 

Inceptive Verbs. 

§ 173. Inceptive verbs in general either want the third root, 
or adopt that of their primitives: (see § 187, U, 2). Of those derived 
from nouns and adjectives, some want the second root, and some form 
it by adding u to the root of the primitive. 

In the following list, those verbs to which s is added, have a simple verb in 
use from which they are formed : — 

*Frondesco, — , s. to put forth leaves. 
*Fruticesco, — , to put forth shoots. 
*Gelasco, — , s. to freeze. So *conge- 

lasco, s. to congeal. 
*Gemisco, — , s. to begin to sigh. 
*Gemmasco, — , to begin to bud. 
*Generasco, — , s. to be produced. 
*Grandesco, — , to grow large. 
*Gravesco, — , to grow heavy. 
*Ha3resco, — , s. to adhere. 
*H6besco, — , s. to grow dull. 
*Horresco, horrui, s. to grow rough. 
*Htimesco, — , s. to groio moist. 
*Ignesco, — , to become inflamed. 
*Ind51esco, -dolui, d. to be grieved. 
*Insolesco, — , to become haughty. 
*Integrasco, — , to be renewed. 
*Juvenesco, — , to grow young. 
*Languesco, langui, s. to grow languid. 
*Lapidesco, — , to become stone. 
*Latesco, — , to grow broad. 
*Latesco, to be concealed, s. *delitesco, 

-lltui ; *oblitesco, -litui. 
*Lentesco, — , to become soft. 
*Liquesco, — , s. to become liquid. 

*del!quesco, -licui. 
*Lucesco, — , s. to arow light, to dawn* 
*Lutesco, — , s. to become muddy. 
*Macesco, — , s. ) . , 

*Macresco, - J to 9 row lean ' 

*remacresco, -macrui. 
♦Madesco, madui, s. to grow moist. 



*Acesco, acui, s. to grow sour. 

*.ZEgresco, to grow sick. 

*Albesco, — , s. to grow white. 

*Alesco, — , s. to grow, coalesco, -alui, 
-alltum, to grow together. 

*Ardesco, arsi, s. to take fre. 

*Aresco, — , s. to grow dry. #exares- 
co, -arui. So inaresco, peraresco. 

*Augesco, auxi, s. to increase. 

*Calesco, calui, s. to grow warm. 

*Calvesco, — , s. to become bald. 

*Candesco, candui, s. to grow white. 

=*Canesco, canui, s. to become hoary. 

*Claresco, clarui, s. to become bright. 

*Condormisco, -dormivi, s. to go to 
sleep. 

*Conticesco, -tlcui, to become silent. 

*Crebresco, crebui and crebrui, to in- 
crease. 

*Crudesco, criidui, to become violent. 

=*Dltesco, — , to grow rich. 

*Dulcesco, — , to grow sweet. 

*Duresco, durui, to grow hard. 

*Evilesco, evilui, to become worthless. 

*ExTlmesco, -tlmui, to fear greatly. 

*Fatisco, — , to gape. 

*Flaccesco, flaccui, s. to wilt. 

*Fervesco, ferbui, s. to grow hot. 

*Floresco, fiorai, s. to begin to flourish. 

*Fracesco, fracui, to grow rancid. 

*Frigesco, — , s. to grow cold. *per- 
frigesco, -frixi. So refrlgesco. 
12* 



138 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



§174. 



*Marcesco, — , s. to pine away. 

*Maturesco, maturui, to ripen. 

*Miseresco, miserui, s. to pity. 

*Mitesco, — , to grow mild. 

*Mollesco, — , to grow soft. 

*Mutesco, — , to become dumb. *ob- 
mutesco, obmutui. 

=*Nigresco, nigrui, s. to grow black. 

*Nltesco, nitui, s. to grow bright. 

*Notesco, notui, to become known. 

^Obbrutesco, — , to become brutish. 

*Obdormisco, — , s. to fall asleep. 

*Obsurdesco, -surdui, to grow deaf. 

*Occallesco, -callui, to become callous. 

=*01esco, {scarcely used.) *abolesco, 
-olevi, s. to cease, adolesco, -olevi, 
-ultum, s. to grow up. exolesco, 
-olevi, -oletum, to grow out of date. 
So obsolesco. inolesco, -olevi, -611- 
tum, d. to grow in or on. 

*Pallesco, pallui, s. to grow pale. 

*Patesco, patui, s. to be opened. 

*Pavesco, pavi, s. to grow fearful. 

*Pertimesco, -tlmui, d. to fear greatly. 

*Pinguesco, — , to grow fat. 

*Pubesco, — , to come to maturity. 

*Puerasco, — , to become a boy. 

ili^'or-M tobecomei "" rid - 

*Raresco, — , to become thin. 
*ResTpisco, -sipui, s. to recover one's 

senses. 
*Rigesco, rigui, s. to grow cold. 
#Rubesco, rubui, s. to grow red. =*eru- 

besco, -rubui, d. 



*Sanesco, — , to become sound. *con- 
sanesco, -sanui. 

*Senesco, senui, s. d. to grow old. So 
consenesco. 

*Sentisco, — , s. to perceive. 

*Siccesco, — , to become dry. 

*Silesco, sllui, s. to grow silent. 

*S61idesco, — , to become solid. 

*Sordesco, sordui, s. to become flihy. 

*Splendesco, splendui, s. to become 
bright. 

*Spumesco, — , to begin to foam. 

*Sterilesco, — , to become barren. 

*Stupesco, stupui, s. to become aston- 
ished. 

Suesco, suevi, suetum, s. to become ac- 
customed. 

*Tabesco, tabui, s. to waste away. 

*Teneresco and -asco, — , to become 
tender. 

*Tepesco, tepui, s. to grow warm. 

*Torpesco, torpui, s. to grow torpid. 

*Tremisco, — , s. to begin to tremble. 

*Tumesco, tiimui, s. ' 

*Turgesco, — , s. 

*Uvesco, — , to become moist. 

* Valesco, — , s. to become strong. 

*Vanesco, — , to vanish. *evanesco, 
evanui. 

*Veterasco, veteravi, to grow old. 

*Viresco, virui, s. to grow green. 

*Vivesco, vixi, s. to come to life. *rS- 
vivisco, -vixi. 



to begin to swell. 



§ T74L, Deponent Verbs of the Third Conjugation. 



Apiscor, aptus, to get. The compounds 
change a into 1 in the first root, and 
into e in the third; as, adipiscor, 
adeptus. So indipiscor. 

Expergiscor, experrectus, to awake. 

*Fatiscor, to gape or crack open. The 
compounds change a into e; as, defe- 
tiscor, -fessus. 

Fmor, fruitus or fructus, fruiturus, d. 
to enjoy. 

Fungor, functus, r. d. to perform. 

Gradior, gressus, to loalk. The com- 
pounds change a into e ; as, aggredior, 
aggressus, r. d. Inf. pres. aggredi 
ana aggrediri ; so, progredi and progre- 
diri ; and pres. ind. egreditur, Plaut. 

*Irascor, to be angry. 

Labor, lapsus, r. to fall. 

^Liquor, to melt, flow. 

Loquor, locutus, r. d. to speak. 

Mlniscor, (obsolete.) commmiscor, com- 
mentus, p. to invent, ^reminiscor, 
to remember. 



Morior, (mori, rarely moriri,) mortuus, 
mSriturus, d. to die. So emoriri, Plaut. 
for emori. 

Nanciscor, nactus or nanctus to obtain. 

Nascor, natus, nasciturus, u. to be born. 

Nltor, nixus or nlsus, nisurus, to lean 
upon. 

Obllviscor, obbtus, d. p. to fwget. 

Paciscor, pactus, d. to bargain. So 
depaciscor. 

Patior, passus, r. d. to suffer, perpetior, 
-pessus,. 

From plecto, to twine, come, amplec- 
tor, amplexus, d. p. complector, com- 
plexus, p. So circumplector. 

Proficiscor, profectus, r. to depart. 

Queror, questus, m. u. d. to complain. 

*Ringor, to snarl. 

Sequor, secutus, r. d. to follow. 

Tuor, tutus, to protect. 

*Vescor, d. to eat. 

Ulciscor, ultus, m. d. p. to avenge. 

Utor, usus, r. d. to use. 



§ 175, 176. VERBS. — SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



139 



Note. Devertor, pravertor, revertor, compounds of verto, are used as depo- 
nents in the present and imperfect tenses; reverter also, sometimes, in the 
perfect. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

§ 175. Verbs of the fourth conjugation regularly form their 
second root in iv, and their third in it ; as, audio, audm, au- 
ditor. 

The following list contains most regular verbs of this conjuga- 
tion : — 



Audio, -Ivi or -ii, m. u. r. d. to hear. 
*Cio, civi, to excite. Ct. cieo, § 168. 
Condio, -Ivi or -ii, to season. 
Custodio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to guard. 
*Dormio, -Ivi or -ii, m. r. d. to sleep. 
Erudio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to instruct. 
Expedio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to disentangle. 
Flnio, -Ivi or -ii, r. d. to finish. 
■*Gestio, -Ivi or -ii, to exult; desire. 
Impedio, -Ivi or -ii, r. d. to entangle. 
Insanio, -Ivi or -ii, to be mad. 
Irretio, -Ivi or ii, to ensnare. 
Lenio, -Ivi or ii, d. to mitigate. 
Mollio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to soften. 



*Mugio, -ivi or -ii, to bellow. 

Munio, -Ivi or -ii, r. d. to fortify. 

Mutio, -Ivi, to mutter. 

Nutrio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to nourish. 

Partio, -Ivi or -ii, r. to divide. 

Polio, -Ivi, d. to polish. 

Punio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to punish. 

Redimio, -Ivi, to crown. 

Scio, -Ivi, u. r. to know. 

Servio, -Ivi or -ii, m. r. d. to serve. 

S5pio, -Ivi or -ii, to lull asleep. 

Stabllio, -Ivi or -ii, to establish. 

Tinnio, -Ivi or -ii, r. to tinkle. 

Vestio, -Ivi or -ii, to clothe. 



§ 176. The following list contains those verbs of the fourth con- 
jugation which form their second and third roots irregularly, and 
those which want either or both of them. 

Remark. The principal irregularity in verbs of the fourth conjugation 
arises from following the analogy of those verbs of the third conjugation whose 
first root ends in a consonant ; as, 'o, sepsi, septum. A few become irregular 
by syncope ; as, venio, veni, ventum. 



Amicio, -ui or -xi, amictum, d. to clothe. 

*Balbutio, — , to stammer. 

Bullio, ii, Itum, to bubble. 

*Ouecutio, — , to be dim-sighted. 

*Cambio, — , to exchange. 

*Dementio, — , to be mad. 

Effutio, — , to babble. 

Eo, Ivi or ii, Itum, r. d. to go. The 
compounds have only ii in the perfect, 
except obeo, praeeo, and subeo, which 
have Ivi or ii. All the compounds want 
the supine and perfect participles, 
except adeo, ambio, Ineo, obeo, pree- 
tereo, subeo, circumeo or circueo, 
redeo, transeo, ami *|veneo, venii, 
r. (from venura eo), to be sold. 

Farcio, farsi, fartum or fare turn, to 
cram. The compounds generally 
change a to e; as, refercio, -fersi, 
-fertum, but con- and ef-, -farcio and 
-fercio. 

Fastldio, -ii, -Itum, d. to loathe. 

*Ferio, — , d. to strike. 



*Ferocio, — , to be fierce. 

Fulcio, fulsi, fultum, d. to prop up. 

*Gannio, — , to yelp, bark. 

*Glocio, — , to cluck as a hen. 

*Glutio, Ivi, or glutii, to swallow. 

Grandio, — , to make great. 

*Grunnio, grunnii, to grunt. 

Haurio, hausi, rar. haurii, haustum, 
rar. hausltum, hausturus, hausiirus, 
u. d. to draw. 

*Hinnio, — , to neigh. 

*Ineptio, — , to trifle. 

*LascIvio, lasclvii, to be wanton. 

*Ligurio, llgurii, to feed delicately. 

*Lippio, — , r. to be blear-eyed. 

*Obedio, obedii, r. to obey. 

Pario is of the third conjugation, but its 
compounds are of the fourth, changing 
a to e; as, aperio, aperui, apertum, 
r. d. to open. So operio, d. comperio, 
comperi, compertum, rarely dep. 
comperior, to find out. So reperio, 
r. d. 



140 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



177, 178. 



Pavio, — , pavitum, to beat. 

*Prurio, — , to itch. 

Queo, quivi or quii, quitum, to be able. 

So *nequeo. 
*Raucio, — , r. to be hoarse. 
*Rugio, — , to roar as a lion. 
Sa3vio, saevii, Itum, r. to rage. 
*Sagio, — , to perceive keenly. 
*Salio, salui or salii, to leap. The 

compounds change a into i ; as, *absi- 

lio, — . So circumsilio. *assilio, -ui. 

So dissilio, insllio. *desilio, -ui or -ii. 

So exsilio, resllio, subsilio. *transil- 

io, -ui or -Ivi, d. So prosilio. 
Salio, — , Itum, r. d. to salt. 
Sancio, sanxi, sancltum or sanctum, d. 

to ratify, sanction. 

Note. Desiderative verbs want both the second and third roots, except 
these three; — *esurio, — } esuritus, r. to desire to eat; *nupturio, -ivi, to desire 
to marry; ^parturio, -ivi, to be in travail. See § 187, II. 3. 

§ ITT. Deponent Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. 



Sarcio, sarsi, sartum, d. to patch. 
Sarrio, -Ivi or -ui, sarrltum, d. to weed, 

hoe. 
*Scaturio, — , to gush out. 
Sentio, sensi, sensum, r. to feel. 
Sepelio, sepellvi or -ii, rar. sepeli, se- 

pultum, r. d. to bury. 
Sepio, sepsi, septum, d. to hedge in. 
*Singultio, — , to sob, hiccup. 
*Sitio, sitii, to thirst. 
Sumo, -ii, -Itum, d. to fumigate. 
*Tussio, — , to cough. 
=*Vagio, vagii, to cry. 
Venio, veni, ventum, r. to come. 
Vincio, vinxi, vinctum, r. d. to bind. 



Assentior, assensus, r. d. p. to assent. 

Blandior, blandltus, to flatter. 

Largior, largltus, p. to give, bestow. 

Mentior, mentltus, r. p. to lie. 

Metior, mensus or metltus, d. p. to 
measure. 

Molior, molltus, d. to strive, toil. 

Ordior, orsus, d. p. to begin. 

Orior, ortus, oriturus, d. to spring up. 
Except in the present infinitive,^ this 
verb seems to be of the third conjuga- 
tion. 



Perior, (obs. whence peritus.) ex- 
perior, expertus, r. d. to try. oppe- 
rior, oppertus or opperitus, d. to 
wait for. 

Partior, partltus, d. to divide. 

Potior, potltus, r. d. to obtain, enjoy. 
In the poets the present indicative and 
imperfect subjunctive are sometimes 
of the third conjugation. 

Sortior, sortltus, r. to cast lots. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

§ 1T8» Irregular verbs are such as deviate from the com- 
mon forms in some of the parts derived from the first root. 

They are sum, volo, fero, edo, flo, eo, queo, and their compounds. 

Sum and its compounds have already been conjugated. See § 153. In the 
conjugation of the rest, the parts which are irregular are fully exhibited, but 
a synopsis only, of the other parts is, in general, given. Some parts of volo 
and of its compounds are wanting. 

1. Volo is irregular only in the, present of the indicative and infin- 
itive, and in the present and imperfect of the subjunctive. 

Remark. It is made irregular partly by syncope, and partly by a change in 
the vowel of the root. In the present infinitive also and in the imperfect sub- 
junctive, after e was dropped, r following I was changed into t; as, velere 
(velre) velle ; velerem (velrem) vellem. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Infin. Perf. Indie. 
vo'-16, vel'-le, voF-u-I, to be willing, to wish. 



§ 178. IRREGULAR VERBS. 141 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. vo'-lo, vis, vult ; Per/. vol'-u-I. 

P. vSl'-u-mus, vul'-tis, vo'-lunt. Plup. vo-lu'-e-ram. 

Imperf. vo-le'-barn, vo-le'-bas, etc. Fut. per/, vo-lu'-e-ro. 
Fut. vo'-lam, vo'-les, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. S. ve'-lini, ve'-lls, ve'-lit; Per/, vo-lu'-e-rim. 

P. v6-li'-mus, ve-li'-tis, v6'-lint. Plup. vol-u-is'-sem. 

Imperf. S. vel'-lem, vel'-les, vel'-let; 

P. vel-le'-miis, vel-le'-tis, vel'-lent. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. vel'-le. Pres. vo'-lens. 

Per/, vol-u-is'-se. 

Note. Volt and voltis, for vult and vultis, and vvn\ for visne are found in Plau- 
tus and other ancient authors. 

2. Nolo is compounded of the obsolete ne (for nori) and volo. The 
v of volo after ne is dropped, and the vowels (e o) are contracted 
into o. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. In/in. Per/. Indie. 

no'-lo, nol'-le, nol'-u-i, to he unwilling. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. no'-lo, non'-vis, non'-vult; Per/. nol'-u-r. 

P. nol'-u-mus, non-vul'-tis, no'-lunt. Plup. no-lu'-e-ram. 

Imperf. no-le'-bam, -bas, -bat, etc. Fut.perf. no-lu'-e-ro. 

Fut. no'-lam, -les, -let, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. S. no'-lim, no'-lls, n5'-lit; Perf. no-lu'-e-rim. 

P. no-ll'-mus, no-li'-tis, no'-lint. Plup. nol-u-is'-sem. 

Imperf. S. nol'-lem, nol'-les, nol'-let ; 

P. nol-le'-mus, nol-le'-tis, nol'-lent 

IMPERATIVE. 
Present. Future. 

Sing. 2. no'-H ; Plur. no-ll-te. Sing. 2. no-li-to, Plur. n5l-I-to'-te, 

3. no-ll'-to; no-lun'-to. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. nol'-le. Pres. no'-lens. 

Perf. nol-u-is'-se. 

Note. In non-vis, non-vult, etc. of the present, non takes the place of ne % but 
nevis and nevolt also occur in Plautus. 



142 IRREGULAR VERBS. § 179. 

3. Malo is compounded of mdgis and volo. In composition magis 
drops its final syllable, and volo its v. The vowels (a o) are then 
contracted into a. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Infin. Per/. Indie. 
ma'-lo, mal'-le, mal'-u-I, to prefer. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. ma'-lo, ma'-vls, ma'-vult; Perf maT-u-I. 

P. mal'-u-mus, ma-vul'-tis, ma'-lunt. Plup. ma-lu'-e-ram. 

Imperf. ma-le'-bam, -bas, etc. Fut. per/, ma-lu'-e-ro. 

Fut. ma'-lam, -les, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. S. ma'-lim, ma'-lis, ma'-lit; Perf. ma-lu'-e-rim. 

P. ma-li'-miis, ma-li'-tis, ma'-lint. Plup. mal-u-is'-sem. 

Imperf. S. mal'-lem, mal'-les, mal'-let 



INFINITIVE. 

Pres. mal'-le. Perf- mal-u-is'-se. 

Note. Mavdlo, mdvdlunt ; mdvdlet ; mavelim, mdvelis, mdvelil ; and mdvellem ; 
for mdlo, mdlunt, etc., occur in Plautus. 

§ 1TO. Fero is irregular in two respects: — 1. Its second and 
third roots are not derived from the first, but from otherwise obsolete 
verbs,. viz. tulo for tollo, and tlao, sup. datum, by apheeresis, latum : — 
2. In the present infinitive active, in the imperfect subjunctive, and 
in certain parts of the present indicative and imperative, of both 
voices, the connecting vowel is omitted. In the present infinitive 
passive, r is doubled. 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Indie, f e'-ro, (to bear?) Pres. Indie, fe'-ror, (to be borne.) 

Pres. Infin. fer'-re, Pres. Infin. fer'-ri, 

Perfi Indie, tii'-li, Perf. Part, la-tiis. 
Supine. la'-tum. 

INDICATIVE. 
Present. 
S. f e'-ro, fers, fert ; fe'-ror, fer'-ris or -re, fer'-tur ; 

P. fer'-i-mus, fer'-tis, fe'-runt. f er'-i-miir, f e-rim'-i-ni, fe-run'-tur. 

Imperf. fe-re'-bam. Imperf. fe-re'-bar. 

Fut. f e'-ram, -res, etc. Fut. f e'-rar, -re'-ris or -re'-re, etc. 

Perf tu'-ll. Perf la-tus sum or fu'-I. 

Plup. tu'le-ram. Plup. la'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram. 

Fut. perf. tu'-le-ro. Fut. perf. la'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro. 



§ 180. IRREGULAR VERBS. 143 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. fe'-ram, -ras, etc. Pres. fe'-rar, -ra'-ris or -ra'-re, etc. 

Imperf. fer'-rem, -res, etc. Imperf. fer'-rer, -re'-ris, etc. 

Per/. tu'-le-rim. Per/. la'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim. 

Plup. tu-lis'-sem. Plup. la'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. S. fer, P. fer'-te. Pres. S. fer'-re, P. fe-rim'-i-nl. 

Fut. S. fer'-to, P. fer-to'-te, 

fer'-to; fe-run'-to. Fut. S. fer'-tor, P. (fe-rem'-i-nl.) 

fer'-tor. fe-run'-tor. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. fer'-re. Pres. fer'-rl. 

Per/, tu-lis'-se. Per/, la -tus es'-se or fu-is'-se. 

Fut. la-tu'-rus es'-se. Fut. la'-tum I'-ri. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. fe'-rens. Per/, la'-tus. 

Fut. la-tu'-rus. Fut. fe-ren'-dus. 

GERUND, 
fe-ren'-di, etc. 

SUPINES. 
Former, la'-tum. Latter, la'-tu. 

Note. In the comic -writers the following reduplicated forms are found in 
parts derived from the second root, viz. tetuli, tetuhsti, tetulit, tetulerunt ; tetulero, 
tetulerit; letulissem, and telulisse. 

§ 180. Flo, ' to become,' is properly a neuter verb of the third 
conjugation, having only the parts derived from the first root ; but it 
is u>ed also as a passive of fdcio, from which it takes those parts of 
the passive which are derived from the third root, together with the 
participle in dus. The infinitive present has been changed from the 
regular form Jiere to fieri. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Infin. Per/. Part. 

fi'-o, fl'-e-rl, fac'-tus, to be made or to become. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. fi'-6, fis, fit ; Perf- fac'-tus sum or fu ; -i. 

P. fi-mus, fi'-tis, fl'-unt. Plup. fac'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram. 

Imperf. fi-e'-bam, fl-e'-bas, etc. Fut. per/, fac'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro. 
Fut. fi'-am, fi'-es, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. fi'-am, fi'-as, etc. Perf. fac'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim. 

Imp. fi'-e-rem, -e'-res, etc. Plup. fac'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem. 



144 IRREGULAR VERBS. § 181. 

IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 

Pres. Sing, fi ; Plur. fT-te. Pres. f i'-e-ri. 

Per/, fac'-tiis es'-se or fu-is'-se. 
Fut. fac'-tum I'-rl. 

PARTICIPLES. SUPINE. 

Per/, fac'-tiis. Latter, fac'-tu. 

Fut. fa-ci-en'-dus. 

Note. The compounds offdcio which retain a, have also f to in the passive; 
as, calefdcio, to warm ; passive, caleflo ; but those which change a into i form 
the passive regularly. (Cf. facio in the list, § 172.) Yet confit, defit, and infit, 
occur. See § 183, 12, 13, 14. 

§ 181. Edo, to eat, is conjugated regularly as a verb of the 
third conjugation ; but in the present of the indicative, imperative, 
and infinitive moods, and in the imperfect of the subjunctive, it has 
also forms similar to those of the corresponding tenses of sum : — 
Thus. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. 

S. e'-do, e'-dis, e'-dit, 

(or es, est) ; 

P. ed'-i-miis, ed'-i-tis, e'-dunt. 

(or es'-tis), 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Imperfect. 

S. ed'-e-rem, ed'-e-res, ed'-e-ret, 

(or es'-sem, es'-ses, es'-set) ; 

P. ed-e-re'-mus, ed-e-re'-tis, ed'-e-rent, 

(or es-se'-mus, es-se'-tis, es'-sent). 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres, S. e-de, P. ed'-i-te, 

(or es; es'-te). 

Fut. S. ed'-i-to, P. ed-i-to'-te, e-dun'-t6. 

(or es'-to, es-to'-te). 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. ed'-e-re, (or es'-se). 

PASSIVE. 

Pres. ed'-i-tiir, (or es'-tur). 

Imperf. ed-e-re'-tur, (or es-se'-tur). 

Note, (a.) In the present subjunctive, edim, edis, etc., are found, for edam, 
edds, etc. 

(6.) In the compounds of edo, also, forms resembling those of sum occur. 
Ambedo has the participles ambens and ambesus ; comedo has comesus, comcsurus, 
and rarely comestus ; and adedo and exedo have adesus and exesus. 



§ 182, 183. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 145 

§ 185$. Eo is irregular in the parts which, in other verbs, are 
formed from the first root, except the imperfect subjunctive and the 
present infinitive. In these, and in the parts formed from the second 
and third roots, it is a regular verb of the fourth conjugation. 

Note. Eo has no first root, and the parts usually derived from that root, 
consist, in this verb, of terminations only. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Infin. Per/. Indie. Per/. Part. 

e'-o, i'-re, I'-vi, i'-tum, to go. 

INDICATIVE. 
Pres. S. e'-o, is, it; Fut. i'-bo, I'-bis, i'-bit, etc. 

P. I'-mus, I'-tis, e'-unt. Per/. I'-vI, I-vis'-tl, I'-vit, etc. 
Imperf. S. I'-bam, I'-bas, I'-bat; Plup. Iv'-e-ram, Iv'-e-ras, etc. 

P. I-ba-nms, etc. Fut.perf.W-e-ro, Iv'-e-rls, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. e'-am, e'-as, e'-at, etc. Per/. Iv'-e-rim, Iv'-e-ris, etc. 
Imperf. I'-rem, I'-res, I'-ret, etc. Plup. I-vis'-sem, I-vis'-ses, etc. 

IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 

Pres. S. I, P. i'-te. Pres. I'-re. 

Fut. 2. I'-to, I-to'-te, Per/. l-vis'-se. 

3. I'-to; e-un'-to. Fut. l-tu'-riis es'-se. 

• PARTICIPLES. GERUND. 

Pres. i'-ens, (gen. e-un'-tis.) e-un'-di, 

Fut. I-tu'-rus, a, um. e-un'-do, etc. 

Remark 1. In some of the compounds the forms earn, ies, let occur, though 
rarely, in the future ; as, redeam, redies, abiet, exiet, prodient. Istis, isseirij and 
isse, are formed by contraction for ivistis, ivissem, and ivisse. See § 162, 7. 

Rem. 2. In the passive voice are found the infinitive m, and the third per- 
sons singular itur, ibatur, ibitur, Hum es<, etc. ; edtur, iretur, eundum est, etc., 
which are used impersonally. See § 184, 2, (a.) 

Rem. 3. The compounds of eo } including veneo, are conjugated like the sim- 
ple verb, but most of them have li in the perfect rather than Ivi. See under eo 
in § 176. Adeo, anteeo, ineo, prcetereo, siibeo, and transeo, being used actively, 
are found in the passive voice. Inietur occurs as a future passive of ineo. 
Ambio is regular, like audio, but has either amblbat or ambiebat. 

Note. Queo, I can, and nequeo, I cannot, are conjugated like eo, but they 
want the imperative mood and the gerund, and their participles rarely occur. 
They are sometimes found in the passive voice, before an infinitive passive. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

§ 183. (1.) Defective verbs are those which are not used 
in certain tenses, numbers, or persons. 

Remark. There are many verbs which are not found in all the tenses, numbers, and 
persons, exhibited in the paradigms. Some, not originally defective, are accounted so, 
because they do not occur in the classics now extant. Others are in their nature defec- 
tiye. Thus, the first and second persons of the passive voice must be wanting in many 
verbs, from the nature of their signification. 
13 



146 DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 183. 

(2.) The following list contains such verbs as are remarkable for 
wanting many of their parts : — 

1. Odi, Ihate. 6. Pari, to speak. 11. Cedo, tell, or give me. 

2. Coepi, I have begun. 7. Quseso, I pray. 12. Confit, it is done. 

3. Memini, I remember. 8. Ave, ) hail, or 13. Defit, it is wanting. 

4. Aio, I Tea ^' Salve, ) farewell. 14. Infit, he begins. 

5. Inquam, } s &' 10. Apage, begone. 15. Ovat, he rejoices. 

1. Odi, coepi, and memini are used chiefly in the perfect and in 
the other parts formed from the second root, and are thence called 
preteritive verbs. Odi has also a deponent form in the perfect : — 
Thus, 

Ind. perf. o'-di or o'-sus sura ; plup. 5d r -e-ram ; fut. perf. od'-e-ro. 

Subj. perf. od'-e-rim ; plup. o-dis'-sem. 

Inf. perf. o-dis'-se ; fut. o-su'-rum es'-se. 

Pakt. fut. o-su'-rus; perf. o'-sus. 
Note 1. Exosus and perosus, like osus, are used actively. Odivit, for odit, oc- 
curs, M. Anton, in Cic. Phil. 13, 19: and odiendi in Appuleius. 

2. Ind. perf. coe'-pi ; plup. coep'-e-ram ; fut. perf. coep'-e-ro. 
Subj. perf. coep'-e-rim ; plup. coe-pis'-sem. 

Inf. perf coe-pis'-se ; fut. ccep-tu'-rum es'-se. 

Part. fut. coep-tu'-rus ; perf. coep'-tus. 
Note 2. In Plautus arc found a present, cozpio, present subjunctive, cozpiam, 
and infinitive, ccepere. Before an infinitive passive, cceptus est, etc., rather than 
coepi, etc., are commonly used. 

3. Ind. perf. mem'-I-ni ; plup. me-min'-e-ram ; fut. perf. me-mm / -e-ro. 
Subj. perf. me-mln'-e-rim ; plup. mem-I-nis'-sem. # 
Inf. perf mem-i-nis'-se. 

Impebat. 2 pers. S. me-men'-to ; P. mem-en-to'-te. 
Note 3. Odi and memini have, in the perfect, the sense of the present, and, 
in the pluperfect and future perfect, the sense of the imperfect and future; as, 
fugiet atque oderit. Cic. In this respect, novi, I know, the perfect of nosco, to 
learn, and consuevi, I am wont, the perfect of consuesco, I accustom myself, agree 
with odi and memini. 

4. Ind. pres. ai'-o,* a'-Is, a'-It; , , ai'-unt.* 

imp. ai-e'-bam, ai-e'-bas, ai-e'-bat; ai-e-ba'-miis, ai-e-ba'-tis, ai-e'-bant. 

Subj. pres. , ai'-as, ai'-at ; , , ai'-ant. 

Imperat. pres. a'-I. Part. pres. ai'-ens. 
Note 4. Ais with ne is contracted to am" 1 like viden\ abin 1 ; for videsne, 
abisne. The comic writers use the imperfect albas, aibat and aibant, which are 
dissyllabic. 

6. Ind. pres. in'-quam, in'-quls, in'-qult; in'-qul-mus, in'-qul-tis, in'-qui-unt. 

imp. , , in-qui-e'-bat, and in-qm -bat; , , in-qui-e'-bant. 

fut. , in'-qui-es, in'-qui-et; , , . 

P er f 1 in-quis'-tl, in-quit; , , . 

Subj. pres. , in'-qui-as, in'-qui-at ; , in-qui-a'-tls, in'-qui-ant. 

Imperat. in'-que, in'-qul-to. 

6. Ind. pres. , , f a/-tur; fut. fa'-bor, , f ab'-I-tur. 

P er f fatus est; plup. fatus eram. 

Imperat. fa'-re. Part. pres. fans; perf. fa'-tus; fut. fan'-dus. 
Infin. pres. fa'-ri or fa'-ri-er. Gerund, gen. fan'-dl; abl. fan'-do. 
Supine, fa'-tu. 

♦Pronounced af-yo, a'-yunt, etc., wherever the diphthong a i is followed by a rowel. 
See § 9, 1. 



§ 184. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 147 

Inter/ dri has the forms inter/dtur, inter/ ata est, inter/dri, inter/ans, and 
inter/dtus. — Effari has effobor, effabere, effdtus est, effdti sunt; imperat. 
effdre: effdri, effdtus, ejf'andus, effando; effdtu. — Pra/dri occurs in 
the following forms, pra/abwr, pra/dmur ; prce/abantur ; prce/drer; 
prce/arentur ; pra/dti sumus ; pra/dtus /uero ; imperat. prm/dto, prce/a- 
mino ; pra/ans, prce/dtus, prce/nndus ; prcefando. — Pro/dri has prof atur, 
pro/ ata est, pro/ ata sunt, pro/dius and prd/ans. 

7. Ind. pres. quae'-so, , quae'-slt; quaes'-u-mus, , . 

Inf. pres. qures'-e-re. 

8. Imperat. S'-ve, a-ve'-te ; a-ve'-to. Inf. avve'-re. 
Note. Avere and solvere are often used with jubeo. 

9. Ind. pres. sal'-ve-o ; /ut. sal-ve'-bis. Inf. pres. sal-ve'-rS. 
Imperat. sal'-ve, sal-ve'-te; sal-ve'-to. 

10. Imperat. ap'-a-ge. So age with a subject either singular or plural. 

11. Imperat. sing, ce'-do; pi. cet'-te /or ced'-i-te. Hence cedodum. 

12. Ind. pres. con'-fit; /ut. con-fi'-et. 

Subj. pres. con-f I'-at ; imperf. con-f l'-e-ret. Inf. p?-es. con-f I'-e-ri. 

13. Ind. pres. de'-fit; pi. de-fi'-unt; /ut. de-fl'-et. Subj. pres. de-fi'-at. 
Inf. pres. de-f i'-e-ri. So ef-f I'-e-ri, and in-ter-f i'-e-ri. Plaut. ; and in-ter- 

fr-at. Lucr. 

14. Ind. pres. in'-fit; pi. in-fi'-unt. 

15. Ind. pres. o'-vat. Subj. pres. o'-vet; imperf. o-va'-ret. 

Part. pres. 6'- vans ; per/ o-va'-tus ; /ut. ov-a-tu'-riis. Gerund, o-van'-dl. 

Remark 1. Among defective verbs are sometimes, also, included the follow- 
ing: — Fdrem, fores, etc., /"ire, (see §154, R. 3.) Ausim, ausis, austt; ausint. Faxo 
and /axim,faxis,/axit; /aximus, /axltis, /axint. Faxem. The form in o is 
an old future perfect ; that in im a perfect, and that in em a pluperfect sub- 
junctive. See § 162, 7, (c), and 9. 

Rem. 2. In the present tense, the first person singular, /uro, to be mad, and 
dor and der, from do, to give, are not used. So in the imperative set, cupe and 
polle, from scio, cupio, and polleo, do not occur. 

Rem. 3. A few words, sometimes classed with defectives, are formed by- 
contraction from a verb and the conjunction si; as, sis for si vis, sultis for si 
vultis, sodes for si audes (for audies.) 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

§ 184:. (a.) Impersonal verbs are those which are used 
only in the third person singular, and do not admit of a personal 

subject. 

(b.) The subject of an impersonal verb in the active voice is, for the most 
part, either an infinitive, or an infinitive or subjunctive clause; but in English 
the neuter pronoun, it, commonly stands before the verb, and represents such 
clause; as, me delectat scribere, it delights me to write. Sometimes an accusa- 
tive depending on an impersonal verb takes, in English, the place of a sub- 
ject; as, me miseret tui, I pity thee. 

1. Impersonal verbs in the active voice are conjugated in the sev- 
eral conjugations like delectat, it delights; decet, it becomes; contingit, 
it happens ; evenit, it happens ; thus : — 



148 


IMPERSONAL VERBS. 


§184 




1st Gtoj. 


2d Conj. 


Sd Conj. 


Wh Conj. 


Ind. Pres. 


delectat, 


decet, 


contingit, 


evenit, 


Imp. 


delectabat, 


decebat, 


contingebat, 


eveniebat, 


Fut. 


delectabit, 


decebit, 


continget, 


eveniet, 


Per/. 


delectavit, 


decuit, 


contigit, 


evenit, 


Plup. 


delectaverat, 


decuerat, 


contigerat, 


even erat, 


Fut. per/. 


delectaverit. 


decuerit. 


contigerit. 


evenerit. 


Sub. Pres. 


delectet, 


deceat, 


contingat, 


eveniat, 


Imp. 


delectaret, 


deceret, 


contingeret, 


evenlret, 


Perf. 


delectaverit, 


decuerit, 


contigerit, 


evenerit, 


Plup. 


delectavisset. 


decuisset. 


contigisset. 


evenisset. 


Inf. Pres. 


delectare, 


decere, 


contingere, 


evenlre, 


Perf. 


delectavisse. 


decuisse. 


contigisse. 


evenisse. 



2. (a.) Most neuter and many active verbs may be used imperson- 
ally in the passive voice, by changing the personal subject of the ac- 
tive voice into an ablative with the preposition a or ab ; as, 

Illi pugnant ; or pugnatur ab Mis, they fight. Illi qucerunt, or quceritur ab 
ittis, they ask. Cf. § 141, Kern. 2. 

(&.) In the passive form, the subject in English is, commonly, either 
the agent, expressed or understood, or an abstract noun formed from 
the verb ; as, 

Pugnaium est, we, they, etc. fought ; or, the battle was fought. Concurritur, 
the people run together; or, there is a concourse. 

(c.) Sometimes the English subject in the passive form is, in Latin, an ob- 
lique case dependent on the verb ; as, .favetur tibi, thou art favored. 

The following are the forms of impersonal verbs in the several conjugations 
of the passive voice : — 

Indicative Mood. 



Pres. pugnatur, 
Imp. pugnabatur, 
Fut. pugnabltur, 
Perf. pugnatum est or 

fait, 
Plup. pugnatum Srat or 

fuerat, 
Fut. p. pugnatum erit or 

merit. 



favetur, 
favebatur, 
favebltur, 
fautum est or 

fait, 
fautum erat or 

fuerat, 
fautum erit or 

fa erit. 



currltur, 
currebatur, 
curretur, 
cursum est or 

fait, 
cursum erat or 

fuerat, 
cursum erit or 

fa erit. 



venltur, 
veniebatur, 
venietur, 
ventum est or 

fait, 
ventum erat or 

fuerat, 
ventum erit or 

fuerit. 



Subjunctive Mood. 



Pres. 

Imp. 
Perf. 



pugnetur, 
pugnaretur, 
pugnatum sit or 
fuerit, 



faveatur, 
faveretur, 
fautum sit 
fuerit, 



pugnatum esset or fautum esset or 
fuisset. fuisset. 



curratur, 
curreretur, 
cursum sit or 

fuerit, 
cursum esset or 

fuisset. 



veniatur, 
veniretur, 
ventum sit or 

fuerit, 
ventum esset or 

fuisset. 



Infinitive Mood. 

Pres. pugnari, faveri, curri, venlri, 

Perf. pugnatum esse or fautum esse or cursum esse or ventum esse or 

fuisse, fuisse, fuisse, fuisse, 

Fut. pugnatum Irl. fautum iri. cursum Iri. ventum Iri. 



§184. 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



149 



3. In like manner, in the periphrastic conjugation, the neuter gen- 
der of the participle in dus, both of active and neuter verbs, is used 
impersonally with est, etc., and the dative of the person ; as, mihi 
scribendum fuit, I have been obliged to write ; moriendum est omnibus, 
all must die. See § 162, 15, R. 5. 

Remark 1. Grammarians usually reckon only ten real impersonal verbs, all 
of which are of the second conjugation, viz. decet, libet, licet, liquet, miseret, 
oportet, piget, panitet, pudet, and tcedtt. (See § 169.) Four of these, decet, libet, 
licet, and liquet occur also in the third person plural, but without personal sub- 
jects. There seems, however, to be no good reason for distinguishing the 
verbs above enumerated from other impersonal verbs. The following are such 
other verbs as are most commonly used impersonally : — 



(a.) In the first conjugation : — 



Constat, it is evident. 
Juvat, it delights. 
Prasstat, it is better. 
Restat, it remains. 
Stat, it is resolved. 



Vacat, there is leisure. 

Certatur, there is a con- 
tention. 

Peccatur, a fault is com- 
mitted. 



(b.) In the second conjugation : — 



Apparet, it appears. 
Attlnet, it belongs to. 
Displicet, it displeases. 
Dolet, it grieves. 
Miseretur, it distresses. 
Patet, it is plain. 



Pertlnet, it pertains. 
Placet, it pleases. 
Fletur, we, etc. weep, or, 

there is weeping. 
Nocetur, injury is in- 
flicted. 



Pugnatur, a battle is 

fought. 
Statur, they stand firm. 



Persuadetur, he, they, etc 
are persuaded. 

Pertaesum est, he, they, 
etc. are disgusted with. 

Siletur, silence is main- 
tained. 



(c.) In the third conjugation : — 



Miserescit, it distresses. 
Suflf icit, it suffices. 
Creditur, it is believed. 
Curritur, people run. 



Desinitur, there is an end. 
Scribitur, it is written. 
Vivitur, we, etc. live. 



Accldit, it happens. 
Condiicit, it is useful. 
Contingit, it happens. 
Fallit, or ) it escapes me ; 
Fugit me, } I do not know. 

(d.) In the fourth conjugation : — 

Convenit, it is agreed Expedit, it is expedient. Scitur, it is known, 
upon ; it is ft. Dormltur, we, they, etc. Itur, they, etc. go. 

Evenit, it happens. sleep. Venitur, they, etc. come. 

(e.) Among irregular verbs : — 

Fit, it happens. Prseterit me, it is un- Refert, it concerns. 

Interest, it concerns. known to me. Subit, it occurs. 

Obest, it is hurtful. Prodest, it avails. Superest, it remains. 

(/.) To these may be added verbs signifying the state of the weather, or the 
operations of nature. The subject of these maybe Jupiter, deus, or c&lum, 
which are sometimes expressed. Of this kind are the following: — 

Lapidat, it rains stones. Tonat, it thunders. 

Ningit, it snows. 
Pluit, it rains. 



at, 1 
lat, ) 



it lightens. 



Fulget, 
Fulgurat. 
Fulminat 
Gelat, it freezes. 
Grandlnat, it hails 



Vesperascit, ) evening 
Advesperascit, \ ap- 
Invesperascit, j proaches. 



Lapidat, ningit, and pluit are also used impersonally in the passive voice. 
13* 



150 



REDUNDANT VERBS. 



§185. 



Rem. 2. Impersonal verbs, not being used in the imperative, take the sub- 
junctive in its stead ; as, delectet, let it delight. In the passive voice, their 
perfect participles are used only in the neuter. 

Rem. 3. Most of the impersonal verbs want participles, gerunds, and su- 
pines ; but pcenitet has a present participle, futures in rus and dus, and the ge- 
rund. Pudet and piget have also the gerund and future passive participle. 

Rem. 4. Most of the above verbs are also used personally, but frequently in 
a somewhat different sense ; as, ut Tiberis inter eos et pons interesset, so that 
the Tiber and bridge were between them. 



REDUNDANT VERBS. 

§ 185. Redundant verbs are those which have different 
forms to express the same meaning. 

Verbs may be redundant in termination ; as, fabrtco and fabricor, 
to frame ; — in conjugation ; as, lavo, -are, and lavo, -ere, to wash ; — 
or in certain tenses ; as, odi and osus sum, I hate. 

1. The following deponent verbs, besides their passive form, have 
an active form in o, of the same meaning, but which is, in general, 
rarely used. A few, however, which are marked r., occur more rare- 
ly than the corresponding forms in o. 



Abominor, to abhor. 
Adulor, to flatter. 
Altercor, to dispute. 
Amplexor, to embrace. 
Arbitror, to suppose. 
Argutor, to prate. 
Assentior, to assent. 
Auciipor, to hunt after. 
Augiiror, to foretell. 
Aurigor, to drive a chaHot. 
Auspicor, to take the au- 



Cachinnor, 

aloud. 
Comltor, to accompany. 
Commentor, to deliberate. 
Convlvor, to feast together. 
Cunctor, (cont.), to delay. 
Dignor, to deem worthy. 
Depascor, to feed upon. 
Elucubror, to elaborate. 



Fabricor, to frame. 
Feneror, to lend on in- 
terest. 
Fluctuor, to fluctuate. 
*■ Frustror, to disappoint. 
Fruticor, to sprout. 
Impertior, r. to impart. 
Jurgor, to quarrel. 
Lacrimor, r. to weep. 
Ludif icor, to ridicule. 
Luxurior, r, to be rank. 
Medicor, to heal. 
r. to laugh Mereor, to deserve. 
Metor, to measure. 
Misereor, to commiserate. 
Moderor, to moderate. 
Muneror, r. to bestow. 
Nictor, r. to wink. 
Nutrior, r. to nourish. 
Obsonor, to cater. 
Oplnor, to suppose. 



Oscltor, to gape. 

Pacificor, r. to make a 
peace. 

Palpor, to caress. 

Partior, to divide. 

Populor, to lay waste. 

Punior, to punish. 

Ruminor, to ruminate. 

Sciscitor, to inquire. 

Sortior, to cast lots. 

Stabulor, to stable. 

Tueor> to defend. 

Tumultuor, to be in con- 
fusion. 

Tutor, to defend. 

Utor, to use. 

Urinor, to dive. 

Velif icor, to set sail. 

Veneror, to reverence. 

Vocif eror, to bawl. 



2. The following verbs are redundant in conjugation : — 

to shine. 



Boo, -are, ) 
Boo, -ere, r. \ 
Bullo, -are, ) 
Bullio, -Ire, } 
Cieo, -ere, | 
Cio, -Ire, r. j 
Denso, -are, 
Denseo, -ere, 
Ferveo, -ere, 
Fervo, -ere, 
Fodio, -ere, 
Fodio, -Ire, r. 



to boil. 
!o excite. 
| to thicken. 
| to boil. 
| to dig. 



to wash, 
to anoint. 



Fulgeo, -ere, 
Fulgo, -ere, r. 
Lavo, -are, 
Lavo, -ere, r. 
Lino, -ere, j 
Linio, -Ire, r. j 

gassy*** 
ia^r.!**-* 



».§:• !*»*«. 

Those marked r. are rare- 
ly used. 



§186. 



REDUNDANT VERBS. 



151 



Mdrior, drior, and pdtior, also, are redundant in conjugation in certain parts. 
See in lists §§ 174 and 177. 

§ 180. 1. Some verbs are spelled alike, or nearly alike, but 
differ in conjugation, quantity, pronunciation, or signification, or in 
two or more of these respects. 

Such are the following : — 

Abdico, -are, to abdicate. 

Abdlco, -ere, to refuse. 

Accldo, -ere, to fall upon. 

Accldo, -ere, to cut down. 

Addo, -ere, to add. 

Adeo, -Ire, to go to. 

Aggero, -are, to heap up. 

Aggero, -ere, to heap upon. 

Allego, -are, to depute. 

All ego, -ere, to choose. 

Appello, -are, to call. 

Appello, -ere, to drive to. 

Cado, -ere, to fall. 

Caedo, -ere, to cut. 

Cedo, -ere, to yield. 

Caleo, -ere, to be hot. 

Calleo, -ere, to be hard. 

Cano, -ere, to sing. 

Caneo, -ere, to be gray. 

Careo, -ere, to want. 

Ciiro, -ere, to card wool. 

Celo, -are, to conceal. 

Caelo, -are, to carve. 

Censeo, -ere, to think. 

Sentio, -ire, to feel. 

Claudo, -ere, to shut. 

Claudo, -ere, to be lame. 

Colli go, -are, to bind to- 
gether. 

Colligo, -ere, to collect. 

Colo, -are, to strain. 

Colo, -ere, to cultivate. 

Compello, are, to accost. 

Compello, -ere, to force. 

Concido, -ere, to cut to 
pieces. 

Concido, -ere, to fall. 

Conscendo, -ere, to em- 
bark. 

Conscindo, -ere, to tear 
to pieces. 

Consterno, -are, to terrify. 

Consterno, -ere, to strew 
over. 

Decido, -ere, to fall down. 

Decido, -ere, to cut off. 

Decipio, -ere, to deceive. 

De?Ipio, -ere, to dote. 

Dellgo, -are, to tie up. 

Dellgo, -ere, to choose. 

Diligo, -ere, to love. 

Dico, -ere, to say. 

Dico, -are, to dedicate. 



Edo, -ere, to eat. 
fido, -ere, to publish. 
Ediico, -are, to educate. 
Ediico, -ere, to draw out. 
Effero, -are, to make wild. 
Effero, -re, to carry out. 
Excldo, -ere, to fall out. 
Excldo, -ere, to cut off. 
Ferio, -Ire, to strike. 
Fero, -re, to bear. 
Ferior,-ari, tokeep holiday. 
Frigeo, -ere, to be cold. 
Frigo, -ere, to fry. 
Fugo, -are, to put to flight. 
Fugio,-ere, to fly. 
Fundo, -are, to found. 
Fundo, -ere, to pour out. 
Incido, -ere, to fall into. 
Incldo, ere, to cut into. 
Indico, -are, to show. 
Indlco, ere, to proclaim. 
Inficio, -ere, to stain. 
Inf Itior, -ari, to deny. 
Intercido, -ere, to happen. 
Intercldo, -ere, to cut 

asunder. 
Jaceo, -ere, to lie. 
Jacio, -ere, to throw. 
Labo, -are, to totter. 
Labor, -i, to glide. 
Lacto, -are, to suckle. 
Lacto, -are, to deceive. 
Lego, -are, to depute. 
Lego, -ere, to read. 
Llceo, -ere, to be lawful. 
Liceor, -eri, to bid for. 
Liquo, -are, to melt. 
Llqueo, -ere, to be mani- 
fest. 
Liquor, -i, to melt. 
Mano, -are, to flow. 
Maneo, -ere, to stay. 
Mando, -are, to command. 
Man do, -ere, to eat. 
Meto, -ere, to reap. 
Meter, -ari, to measure. 
Metior, -Iri, to measure. 
Metuo, -ere, to ftar. 
Misoror, -ari, to pity. 
Misereor, -eri, to pity. 
Moror, -ari, to delay. 
Morior, -i, to die. 
Niteo, -ere, to glitter. 



Nitor, -i, to strive. 

Obsero, -are, to lock up. 

Obsero, -ere, to sow. 

Occido, -ere, to fall. 

Occido, -ere, to kill. 

Operio, -Ire, to cover. 

Operor, -ari, to work. 

Opperior, -Iri, to wait for. 

Pando, -are, to bend. 

Pando, -ere, to extend. 

Paro, -are, to prepare. 

Pareo, -ere, to appear. 

Pario, -ere, to bring forth. 

Pario, -are, to balance. 

Pendeo, -ere, to hang. 

Pendo, -ere, to weigh. 

Percolo, -are, to Jitter. 

Percolo, -ere, to adorn. 

Permaneo, -ere, to re- 
main. 

Perma.no, -are, to flow 
through. 

Praedico, -are, to publish. 

Praedico, -ere, to foretell. 

Prodo, -ere, to betray. 

Prodeo, -Ire, to come forth. 

Recedo, -ere, to retire. 

Eecido, -ere, to fall back. 

Recldo, -ere, to cut off. 

Keddo, -ere, to restore. 

Eedeo, -Ire, to return. 

Eefero, -re, to bring back. 

Eeferio, -Ire, to strike back. 

Relego, -are, to remove. 

Relego, -ere, to read over. 

Sedo, -are, to allay. 

Sedeo, -ere, to sit. 

Sldo, -ere, to sink. 

Sero, -ere, to sow. 

Sero, -ere, to entwine. 

Succldo, -ere, to fall un- 
der. 

Succldo, -ere, to cut down. 

Vado, -ere, to go. 

Vador, -ari, to bind over 
by bail. 

Veneo, -Ire, to be sold. 

Venio, -Ire, to come. 

Venor, -ari, to hunt. 

Vincio, -Ire, to bind. 

Vinco, ere, to conquer. 

Volo, -are, to fly. 

Volo, velle, to be willing. 



152 DERIVATION OF VERBS. § 187. 

2. Different verbs have sometimes the same perfect ; as, 

Aceo, acui, to be sour. Fulcio, fulsi, to prop. Paveo, pavi, to fear. 

Acuo, acui, to sharpen. Lticeo, luxi, to shine. Pasco, pavi, to feed. 

Cresco, crevi, to grow. Lugeo, luxi, to mourn. Pendeo, pependi, tohang. 
Cerno, crevi, to decree. Mulceo, mulsi, to soothe. Pendo, pependi, to weigh. 
Fulgeo, fulsi, to shine. Mulgeo, mulsi, to milk. i 

To these add some of the compounds of sto and sisto. 

3. Different verbs have sometimes, also, the same supine or perfect 
participle; as, 

Frico, frictum, to rub. Pango, pactum, to drive Patior, passus, to suffer. 

Frigo, frictum, to roast. in. Teneo, tentum, to hold. 

Maneo, mansum, to re- Paciscor, pactus, to bar- Tendo, tentum, to stretch. 

main. gain. Verro, versum, to brush. 

Mando, mansum, to chew. Pando, passum, to extend. Verto, versum, to turn. 



DERIVATION OF VERBS. 

§ 187. Verbs are derived either from nouns, from adjec- 
tives, or from other verbs. 

1. Verbs derived from nouns or adjectives are called denomina- 
tives. 

1. (a.) Active denominatives are generally of the first conjuga- 
tion ; those which are neuter, of the second. They are usually formed 
by adding respectively o and eo to the root ; as, 

Fbom Nouns. 

Actives. Neuters. 

Anno, to arm, (anna.) Floreo, to bloom, (flos.) 

Fraudo, to defraud, (fraus.) Frondeo, to produce leaves, (frons.) 

Nomino, to name, (nomen.) Luceo, to shine, (lux.) 

Numero, to number, (numerus.) Vireo, to flourish, (vis.) 

From Adjectives. 
Albo, to whiten, (albus.) Albeo, to be white, (albus.) 

Celebro, to frequent, (celeber.) Calveo, to be bald, (calvus.) 

Libero, to free, (liber.) Flaveo, to be yellow, (flavus.) 

(&.) Sometimes a preposition is prefixed in forming the deriva- 
tive ; as, 

Coacervo, to heap together, (acervus.) Exstirpo, to extirpate, (stirps.) 
Excavo, to excavate, (cavus.) Illaqueo, to insnare, (laqueus.) 

2. Many deponents of the first conjugation, derived from nouns, express 
the exercise of the character, office, etc., denoted by the primitive; as, archi- 
tector, to build; comitor, to accompany; furor, to steal; from architectus, 
cdmes, and fur. 

3. Such as denote resemblance or imitation are called imitatives ; as, cornl- 
cor, to imitate a crow, from cornix ; Grozcor, to imitate the Greeks. Some of 
these end in isso ; as, patrisso, to imitate a father. 

H. Verbs derived from other verbs are either frequentatives, in- 
ceptives, desideratives, diminutives, or intensives. 



§ 187. DERIVATION OF VERBS. 153 

1. Freguentatives express a repetition, or an increase of the action 
expressed by the primitive. 

(a.) They are all of the first conjugation, and are formed by adding 
o to the third root ; as, ddmo, (ddmlt-) domlto. So adjuvo, adjuto ; 
dlco, dicto ; gero, gesto. In verbs of the first conjugation, at of the 
root is often changed into it ; as, cldmo, to cry, (clamat-') clamito, to 
cry frequently. 

(b.) A few frequentatives are formed by adding xto to the first 
root of the primitive ; as, ago (ag-) aglto. So lateo, latito ; nosco, 
noscito ; qucero, qucertto. 

(c.) Frequentatives, from primitives of the second, third, and fourth conju- 
gations, sometimes serve again as primitives, from which new frequentatives 
are formed ; as, dico, dicto, dictlto ; curro, curso, curslto ; venio, vento, ventito. 
Sometimes the second or intermediate form is not in use. 

(<?.) Some frequentatives are deponent; as, mlnltor, from minor {minat-); 
versor, from verto (veis-). So amplexor, sector, Idqultor, from amplector, sequor, 
and liquor. 

(e.) When verbs of this class express simply an increase of the action de- 
noted by the primitive, they are, by some grammarians, called intensives. 

2. Inceptives, or inchoatives mark the beginning of the action or 
state expressed by the primitive. 

(a.) They all end in sco, and are formed by adding that termina- 
tion to the root of the primitive, with its connecting vowel, which, in 
the third conjugation, is i; as, caleo, to be hot; calesco, to grow hot. 

So labo, (are), labasco: inyemo, (ere), ingemisco ; obdormio, (ire), obdormisco. 
Eisco is contracted for Masco, from hio, (are). 

(b.) Most inceptives are formed from verbs of the second conjugation. 

(c.) Some inceptives are formed from nouns and adjectives by adding asco 
or esco to the root ; as, pnerasco, from puer ; juvenesco, from juvenis. 

Xote. Inceptives are all neuter, and of the third conjugation. See § 173. 

Some verbs in sco, which are not inceptives, are active ; as, disco, posco. 

3. Desideratives express a desire of doing the act denoted by the 
primitive. 

(a.) They are formed from the third root, by adding urio ; as, 
cozno, to sup, (cosnat,) coznaturio, to desire to sup. 

(b.) Desideratives are all of the fourth conjugation. See § 176, Note. 

(c.) Verbs in urio, having u long, are not desideratives; as, prurio, ligurio. 

4. Diminutives denote a feeble or trifling action. They are formed 
by adding Mo to the root of the primitive ; as, conscribdlo, to scribble, 
from conscrlbo. 

They are few in number, and are all of the first conjugation. 

5. Intensives denote eager action. They are usually formed by 
adding so, esso, or isso to the root of the primitive ; as, fdcesso, to act 
earnestly — from fdcio. 

So cdpesso, incesso, from capio and incedo. Qmcupisco, to desire greatly, though 
in form an inceptive, is, in its signification, an intensive. 

Note. Verbs of all these classes have sometimes simply the meaning of their 
primitives. 



154 COMPOSITION OF VERBS. § 188, 189. 

COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 

§ 188. Verbs are compounded variously : — 

1. Of a noun and a verb ; as, cedifico, belllgero, lucrtfdcio. See § 103, R. 1. 

2. Of an adjective and a verb ; as, amplifico, multiplico. 

3. Of two verbs ; as, calefdcio, madefdcio, patefdcio. 

Rem. In verbs of this class, the first part, which is a verb of the second con- 
jugation, loses its final o ; the second part is always the verb fdcio. 

4. Of an adverb and a verb ; as, benefdcio, mdledico, sdtdgo, nolo, negllgo. 

5. Of a preposition and a verb ; as, adduco, excdlo, prodo, subrepo, discerno, 
sejungo. 

6. Of a preposition and a noun; as, pemocto, irretio. 

§ 180. In composition with particles, the vowels a and e and 
the diphthong <x in the radical syllable of the simple verb are often 
changed in the compound. 

1. The following simple verbs in composition change a into e : — 
Arceo, Carpo, Farcio, Jacto, Pario, Patro, Spargo, 
Candeo, Damno, Fatiscor, Lacto, Partio, Sacro, Tracto. 
Capto, Fallo, Gradior, Mando, Patior, Scando, 

Exc. A is retained in amando, prcemando, desacro, and retracto ; prazdamno, 
and pertracto sometimes also occur. A is also changed into e in occento from 
canto, and anhelo from halo ; comperco also is found. 

2. The following, in the first root, change a and e into i ; viz. 
ago, cado, egeo, emo, frango, pango, premo, rego, sedeo, specio, tango. 

3. These change a and e, in the first and second roots, into i; viz. 

salio, to leap, sapio, taceo, and teneo. 

4. These change a into i, and ce into l, in all the roots ; viz. 

habeo, lacio, lateo, placeo, statuo; caedo, lasdo, and quaero. 

5. The following change a, in the first root, into i, and in the third 
root into e ; viz. 

cano, capio, fateor, jacio, rapio, and apiscor. 

Exc. (a.) A is retained in circumdgo, perdgo, satago; antehabeo, posthdbeo, 
depango, repango, compldceo, and perpldceo. Occdno and recdno also sometimes 
occur. E is retained in coemo, circumsedeo, and supersedeo. Antecdpio and an- 
ticipo are both used ; so also are superjdcio and superjicio. 

(b.) Cogo and dego are formed, by contraction, from con, de, and ago; demo, 
promo and sumo, from de, pro, sub, and emo ; prazbeo, and perhaps debeo, from 
proi, de, and habeo ; per go and surgo, from per, sub, and rego. 

Note 1. Fdcio, compounded with a preposition, changes d into i in the first 
root, and into e in the third ; as, officio, affeci, affectum. Some compounds of 
fdcio with nouns and adjectives, change a into i, and also drop i before o, and 
are of the first conjugation ; as, significo, laitifico, magnifico. Specio forms 
some compounds in the same manner; as, consplcor and suspicor. 

Note 2. Lego, compounded with con, de, di, e, inter, nee, and se, changes e 
into i, in the first root ; as, colligo, negllgo, etc. ; but with ad, prm, per, re, sub, 
and trains, it retains e ; as, allego. 

Note 3. Calco and salto, in composition, change a into u ; as, inculco, insulto. 
Plaudo changes au into 0; as, explodo ; except applaudo. Audio changes au 
into e in obedio. Causo, da/udo, and qudiio, drop a ; as, accuso, recludo, percutio. 
Juro changes u into e in dfjero and pejSro, but dejuro, also, is in use. 



Confuto, 


Instlgo, 


Connlveo, 




Refuto, 


Impleo, 


Percello, 




Ingruo, 


Compleo, 
Renideo, 


Induo, 


and some 


Congruo, 


Exuo, 


others. 



§ 190, 191. ADVERBS. 155 

Notk 4. In the compounds of caveo, mdneo, and traho, a remains unchanged, 
and so also does cc in the compounds of hcereo. 

Note 5. The simple verbs with which the following are com- 
pounded are not used : — 

Defendo, Impedio, 

Offendo, Imbuo, 

Experior, Compello, (-are,) 

Expedio, Appello, (-are,) 

For the changes produced in prepositions by composition with verbs see 
$ 196. 

PARTICLES. 

§ 100. 1. Particles are those parts of speech which are 
neither declined nor conjugated. They are divided into four 
classes — adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. 

Note. A word may sometimes belong to two or more of these classes, ac- 
cording to its connection. 

ADVERBS. 

2. An adverb is a particle used to modify or limit the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, 

Bene el sapienter dixit, he spoke well and wisely; Cants egregie f delis, a re- 
markably faithful dog; Nimis valde lauddre, to praise too much. Compare 
$ 277, R. 1. 

3. Adverbs, in regard to their signification, are divided into va- 
rious classes ; as, adverbs of place, time, manner, etc., and some be- 
long to either class according to their connection. 

4. In regard to their etymology, adverbs are either primitive or 
derivative. 

Remark. Among primitive adverbs are here classed not only such as can- 
not be traced to any more remote root, but also all which are not included in 
the regular classes of derivative adverbs hereafter mentioned. 

PRIMITIVE ADVERBS. 

§ 101* The primitive adverbs are few in number, when com- 
pared with the derivatives, and most of them are contained in the 
following lists marked I, II, and III. 

I. Adverbs of Place and Order. 

adeo, so far } as far. alicubi, somewhere. aliquoversum, toward 

adhiic, to this place. allcunde, from some some place. 

adversii9, ") opposite, _ place. ' aliunde, from another 

adversum, > over against, alio, to another place. place. 

exadversus, — um, ) toward. allqua, in some way. circa, ) , 

alia, by another way. aliorsum, towardanoth- circum, ] arouncl - 

alias, in another place. er place. circlter, on every side. 

alibi, elsewhere. aliquo, to some place, cixcumcixca, all around. 



156 



ADVERBS. 



§191 



citra, on this side. 
citro, hither. 
contra, over against. 
coram, before. 
dehinc, henceforth. 
deinceps, successively. 
deinde, after that. 
denlque, finally. 
denuo, again. 
deorsum, downward. 
dextrorsum, toward the 

right. 
ea, that way. 
eadem, the same way. 
eo, to that place, thither. 
eodem, to the same place. 
exinde, after that. 
extra, without. 
extrinsecus. from without. 
f oras, out of doors. 
f oris, without. 
hac, this way. 
hactenus, thus far. 
hie, here. 
hinc, hence. 
hue, hither. 
hucusque, thus far. 
horsum, hitherward. 
Ibi, there. 

ibidem, in the same place. 
iliac, that way. 

illic, there. quoad, 

illinc, thence. quousque, ) 

illo, thither. quopiam, > 

illorsum, thitherward. quoquam, j 

illuc, thither. quoquo, 

inde, thence. quocumque 

indldem, from the same 

place. 



infra, below, beneath. 
Inibi, in that place. 
intrinsecus, from within. 
intra, intro, i 
introrsum, > within. 
intus, ) 

istac, that way. 
istic, there. 
istinc, thence. 
is to, istiic, thither. 
juxta, near, alike. 
necubi, lest any where. 
neutro, to neither side. 



quorsum? whitherward? 

qS5Hblt,J toet,e ^^ ace - 

£v m {backward, 
retrorsum, V h , ' 

rursum, J 0aclc ' 

sicubi, if any where. 

sicunde, if from any place. 

sinistrorsum, toward the 

left. 

subter, beneath. 

super, supra, above,ontop. 

sui«um, upward. 



neutrubi, to neither place, turn, then, in the next 



where. 



to neither side. 
nulllbi, 
nusquam, 
penitus, within. 
pone, post, behind, back. 
porro, onward. 
procul, far. 
prope, propter, near. 
prorsum, forward. 
protmus, onward. 
qua ? in which way ? 
quaqua, ) what way 

quacumque, J soever. 
quaque, wheresoever. 
quallbet, 
quavis, 
quo? whither? 



wherever, 
wheresoever. 

any where, 
every where. 



place. 
iibi? where? 
ubicumque, 
iibiubi, 
ubilibet, 
iiblque, 
ubivis, 

ultra, ultro, beyond. 
unde ? whence ? 
undellbet, ) j. ^ „„,„„.. 

undique, J 

undeunde, ) whence- 

undecumque, ) soever. 

uspiam, ) somewhere, 

usquam, ) any where. 

usque, all the way. 

usquequaque, in all ways 

utrimque, on both sides. 

*~ n ~„„ ~s~„~ utro? which way ? 

to some peace. utr6bI? in whic % phce f 

) whither- utrobique, in both places. 
, ) soever. utroque, to both sides. 



way. 



how far. 



toward 



utroqueversum, toward 
both sides. 



quoquoversus, 
every side. 

Remark 1. (a.) The interrogative adverbs of place, iibi? where? unde? 
whence ? quo ? whither ? and qua ? in what way ? have relation to other ad- 
verbs formed in a similar manner, thus constituting a system of adverbial cor- 
relatives similar to that of the pronominal adjectives. See § 139, 5, (3.) 

(b.) As in the case of the pronominal correlatives, the interrogative and 
relative forms are alike, beginning with u or qu. The demonstratives are formed 
from is, which is strengthened by dern, and the indefinite from aliquis. The 
general relatives and the general indefinites or universals, like those of the pro- 
nominal adjectives, are made, the former by doubling the simple relatives or 
by appending to them the termination cumque, ' soever,' and the latter by ad- 
ding que, vis, or libet. Thus : 



Interrog. 


Demonstr. 


Relat. 


Gen. Relat. 


Indefin. 


Gen. Indefin. 


iibi? 


Ibi, 


ubi, 


iibiubi, 


alicubi, 


iibique, . 




ibidem, 




ubicumque, 




iibivis, 
ubilibet. 


unde? 


inde, 


unde, 


undeunde, 


alicund?, 


undique, 




indldem, 




undecumque, 




undevis, 

undellbet, 


quo? 


eo, 


quo, 


quoquo, 


allquo, 


quovis, 




eodem, 




quocumque, 




quollbet, 


qua? 


ea, 


qua. 


quaqua, 


allqua. 


quavis, 




eadem. 




quacumque. 




quallbet. 



§191. 



ADVERBS. 



157 



(c.) To those answering to ubi? maybe added alibi, nullibi, and tnibi, the 
latter being a strengthened form of ibi. In like manner aliunde, utrimque, in- 
trinsecus, and extrinsecus may be added to those answering to unde? and alio to 
those answering to quo ? So also to utro ? answer utroque and neulro. 

(d.) The demonstratives ibi, inde, and eo are used only in reference to rela- 
tive sentences which precede; but more definite demonstratives are formed 
from the pronouns hie, iste, and ille, answering in like manner to ubi t unde ? 
and quo ? These together with the preceding correlatives are, in the following 
table, arranged respectively under their several interrogatives ubi ? wide ? quo t 
qua ? and quorsum ? — Thus : 



ubi? 


unde ? 


quo? 


qua? 


quorsum ? 
horsum, 


hie, 


hinc, 


hue, 


hac, 


istic, 


istinc, 


istuc, 


istac, 


istorsum, 


illlc, 


illinc, 


illuc, 


iliac, 


illorsum, 


Ibi, 


inde, 


eo, 


ea, 





Ibidem, 
alibi, 


indidem, 
aliunde, 


eodeni, 
alio, 


eadem, 
alia, 




» 
aliorsum, 


aliciibi. 


allcunde. 


allquo. 


aliqua. 


aliquoversum. 



(e.) Hie, hinc, hue, refer to the place of the speaker; istic, istinc, istuc, to the 
place of the second person or person addressed ; and illic, illinc, illuc, to that of 
the third person or the person or thing spoken of. Cf. § 207, R. 23, (a.) and (d.) 

{/.) The interrogative adverbs ubi, unde, quo, qua, etc. are often used with- 
out a question, simply as adverbs of place ; as, In earn partem ituros, atque Ibi 
futuros Helvetios, ubi eos Gzsar constituisset. 

(g.) In consequence of a transfer of their meaning, some of the adverbs of 
place, as, hie, ibi, ubi, hinc, inde, hactenus, etc., become also adverbs of time, 
and some of them are used also as conjunctions. 



II. Adverbs of Time. 



actutum, immediately. 
abhinc, from this time. 
adeo, so long (as). 
adhuc, until now, still. 
alias, at another time 
allquamdiu, for awhile. 
allquando, at some time. 
aliquoties, several times. 
ante, | before, 
antes, ) previously. 
antehac, formerly. 
bis, twice, (see § 119). 
circiter, about, near. 
eras, tomorrow. 
cum or quum, when. 
deinceps, in succession. 
deindeordein, ) thereupon, 
exinde or exin, j afterward. 
dehinc, from this time. 
demum, at length. 
denique, lastly. 
diii, long. 

dudum, previously. 
eousque, so long. 
here or heri, yesterday. 
hie, here, hereupon. 
hinc, from this time, since. 
hodie, to-day. 
Ibi, then, thereupon. 
Identidem, now and then, 
repeatedly. 

14 



illico, immediately. 
hide, after that, men. 
interdum, sometimes. 
interim, meanwhile. 
Iterum, again. 
jam, now, already. 

jamjam, presently. 

jampridem, long since. 

modo, just now. 

mox, soon after. 

nondum, not yet. 

nonnumquam, sometimes. 

nudifis tertius, three days 
ago. 

nunc, now. 

numquam, never. 

niiper, lately. 

olim, formerly. 

parumper, \for a short 

paulisper, ) time. 

perendie, two days hence. 

porro, hereafter, in fu- 
ture. 

post, postea, afterwards. 

posthac, hereafter. 

postridie, the day after. 

pridem, long since. 

pridie, the day before. 

protinus, instantly. 



quamdiu ? how long ? 
quando? when? 
quandocumque, when- 
ever. 
quandoque, at some time. 
quater, four times. 

&.?]»«•«"*' 

quondam, formerly. 
quotidie, daily. 
quoties ? how often ? 
quum or cum, when. 
rursus, again. 
sa^pe, often. 
semel, once. 
semper, always. 
statim, immediately. 
siibinde, immediately, novo 

and then. 
tamdiu, so long. 
tandem, at length. 
tantisper, for so long. 
ter, thrice. 
toties, so often. 
turn, tunc, then. 
ubi, when, as soon as. 
umquam, ever. 
usque, until, ever. 
ut or uti, as, as soon as 

when. 



158 



ADVERBS. 



§191. 



HI. Adverbs of Manner, Quality, Degree, etc, 



adeo, so, to that degree. 
admodum, very much. 
aliter, otherwise. 
ceu, as, like as. 
cur? why? 

duntaxat, only, at least. 
etiam, also, truly, yes. 

as±? }*>»-«» 

ferme | almost i nearly. 
fortasse, perhaps. 
frustra, in vain. 

fratis, freely. 
aud, not. 

haudquaquam, by no 
means. 

hucusque, so far. 

identidem, constantly. 

immo, nay, on the con- 
trary. 

Itii, so. 

item, just so, also. 

Itidem, in like manner. 

juxta, equally, alike. 

magis, more. 

modo, only. 

nae or ne, truly, verily. 

ne, not. 

nedum, much less. 

nempe, truly, forsooth. 

nequaquam, ) by no 

neutiquam, j means. 

nimlrum, certainly, to be 
sure. 



nimis. 



mmmm,) t00mucl1 - 
non, not. 

omnino, altogether, only. 
pane, almost. 
palam, openly. 
paiiter, equally. 
parum, too Utile. 
paulatim, by degrees. 
penitiis, wholly. 
perinde, ) just as, 
proinde, j as though. 
perquam, very much. 
plerumque, for the most 

part, commonly. 
pothis, rather. 
porro, moreover, then. 
prseter, beyond, except. 
prassertim, particularly. 
profecto, truly. 
prope, almost, near. 
propemodum, almost. 
prorsus, wholly. 
quam, how much, as. 
quamobrem, wherefore. 
quare ? why ? wherefore ? 
quasi, as if as it were. 
quemadmodum, as. 

) 
equidem, J 
quomodo? how? in what 

manner ? 
quoqu?, also. 
rite, duly. 
saltern, at least. 



<* uidera ' I indeed. 



sane, truly. 

Ims, \ enou ^ 

satius, rather. 
scilicet, truly, to wit. 
secus, otherwise. 

SSSj }«*«* 

sic, so. 
slcut, ) 

sicutU 8008 '^ 
simul, together. 
singillatirn, one by one. 
solum, only, alone. 
tam, so, so much. 
tamquam, like, as if. 
tantopere, so greatly. 
tan turn, so much, only. 
tantummodo, . only. 
temere, at random. 
una, together. 
usquequaque, inallpoints, 
in all ways. 

utique, at any rate, cer- 
tainly. 
utpote, as, -inasmuch as. 
valde, very much. 
vel, even. 

vtiut, / as, like as, for 
velutl, J example. 
vicissim, in turn, again. 
videlicet, clearly, to wit. 
vix, scarcely. 



Rem. 2. Adverbs denoting quality, manner, etc., are sometimes divided into 
those of, 1. Quality; as, bene, male. 2. Certainty; as, certe, plane. 3. Con- 
tingence ; as, forte. 4. Negation ; as, haud, non, ne, immo. 5. Affirmation ; as, 
nai, quidem, utique, nempe. 6. Swearing; as, hercle. 7. Explaining; as, videli- 
cet, utpote. 8. Separation; as, seorsum. 9. Joining together; as, simul, una. 
10. Interrogation; as, cur? quare? 11. Quantity or degree; as, satis, adeo. 
12. Excess; as, perquam, maxi me. 13. Defect; as, pdrwm^ pome. 14. Prefer- 
ence; as, potius, satius. 15. Likeness; as, itd, sic. 16. Unhkeness; as, aliter. 
17. Exclusion ; as, tanlum, solum. 

Rem. 3. Non is the ordinary Latin negation. Haud signifies either ' not at 
all,' or ' not exactly.' It is used by the comic and later writers in all combina- 
tions, but in the authors of the best age its use is more especially limited to its 
connection with adjectives and adverbs denoting a measure; as, haud multum, 
haud magnum, haud parvus, haud mediocris, haud paulo, haud procid, haudlonge, 
especially haud sane in connection with other words; as, haud sane facile, res 
haud sane difficilis, haud sane intelligo ; also haud quisquam, haud uniquam, haud 
quaquam. With verbs haud is scarcely used until Livy and Tacitus, except in 
the common phrase haud scio an, which is equivalent to nescio an. — Ne , (or ni) 
is the primitive Latin negative particle, signifying no or not. It is used in this 
sense and as an adverb, (a) with quidem to make an emphatic negation of the 
word standing between them; as, ne in oppidis quidem, not even in the towns; 
(6) in composition as in nescio, nef as, neuter, etc.; (c) with imperatives and 



§ 191. ADVERBS. 159 

subjunctives used as imperatives ; as, Ne pueri, ne tarda anlmis assuescite bella. 
Virg. So, also, in wishes and asseverations ; as, Ne id Jupiter sineret, may Ju- 
piter forbid it. Liv. Ne vivam, si scio, may I die, if I know. Cic. ; and in con- 
cessive and restrictive clauses; as, Ne Juerit, suppose there was not. Cic. 
Suit misericordes in furibus atrarii, ne Hits sanguinem nostram largiantur, only 
let them not, etc. Cic. So dum ne, dummddo ne, mddo ne, dum quidem ne ; and in 
intentional clauses with vt. — Immo, as a negative, substitutes something 
stronger in the place of the preceding statement, which is denied; as, Causa 
igitur non bona est ? Immo optima, sed, etc. Cic. It may often be translated by 
' nay,' or • nay even.' 

Rem. 4. Quidem gives particular emphasis to a word or an idea, and then 
answers to our ' certainly ' or ' indeed,' but frequently, especially with a pro- 
noun, it merely adds emphasis. Equidem, which is considered as a com- 
pound of ego nndquidem, is used exclusively in this sense by Cicero, Virgil, and 
Horace, but by otber and particularly by later writers it is used like quidem. — 
Ne mp e, ' surely,' is often used ironically, when we refute a person by con- 
cessions which he is obliged to make, or by deductions. In other connections 
it may be translated ' namely.' 

Rem. 5. Sic, itd, tarn, as also tantopere, and adeo signify 'so.' 
Sic is more particularly the demonstrative 'so,' or 'thus'; as, sic se res habet. 
It a defines or limits more accurately, and is equivalent to our ' in such a man- 
ner,' or ' only in so far ' ; as, ita defendito, ut neminem Icedas. Frequently, how- 
ever, ita has' the signification of sic, but sic has not the limiting sense of ita.— 
Ta m , ' so much,' generally stands before adjectives and adverbs, and in- 
creases the degree; before vowels tantopere is generally used instead of tarn. — 
Adeo, 'to that degree' or 'point,' increases the expression to a certain end or 
result. Hence it forms the transition to the conclusion of an argument or to 
the essential part of a thing ; and Cicero employs it to introduce the proofs of 
what he has previously alleged ; as, Id adeo ex ipso sendtus consulto cognoscite, 
and always in such case puts adeo after a pronoun. 

Rem. 6. Umquam, 'ever,' and '•usquam, 'somewhere,' like quisquam, 
require a negation in the sentence, and thus become equivalent to numquam 
and nusquam. A negative question, however, may supply the place of a nega- 
tive proposition ; as, num tu eum umquam vidisti? — Us pi am , like quispiam, is 
not negative, but is the same as dlieubi, but strengthened, just as quispiam is 
the same as aliquis. So, also, quopiam is used affirmatively, and quoquam nega- 
tively. — Jam, with a negative, answers to our 'longer 'fas, Nihil jam spero, 
I no longer hope for any thing. When used to connect sentences it signifies 
'further,' or 'now.' — Usque is commonly accompanied by the prepositions 
ad, in, ab, or ex. It rarely signifies ' ever and anon ' ; as, Naturam expellas 
Jurca, tdmen usque recurret. Hor. — A T uper, mddo, and mox are relative 
and indefinite. — Dudum, ' previously,' or ' before,' in relation to a time which 
has just passed away, may often be translated 'just before.' — Jamdudum 
signifies ' long before,' or 'long since.' With the poets jamdudum contains the 
idea of impatience, and signifies 'without delay,' 'forthwith'; as, Jamdudum 
eumile poznas. Virg. — Tandem, 'at length,' also expresses the impatience 
with which a question is put. 

Rem. 7. Tunc is 'then,' 'at that time,' in opposition to nunc, 'now': 
Turn is 'then,' as the correlative of quum, 'when ;' as, quum omnes adessent, 
turn Me exorsus est dicere, when all were present, then he began to speak. 
Without a relative sentence turn signifies ' hereupon,' or ' thereupon ' ; but a 
relative sentence may always be supplied. The same difference exists between 
etiam nunc and etiam turn, ' still,' or ' yet ' ; and between nunc ipsum and turn ip- 
sum; quummaxime and tummaxime, 'just,' or 'even then'; for etiam nunc, nunc 
ipsum and quum maxime refer to the present ; but etiamtum, turn ipsum, and 
tummaxime, to the past. 



160 DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. § 192. 

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 

§ 192* Adverbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, pro- 
nouns, and participles. 

I. From Nouns. 

1. Of these a few end in im (generally atim), and denote manner; 
as, 

gregdtim, in herds ; membrdtim, limb by limb ; vicissatim, or more frequently, 
vicissim, by turns ; from grex, membrum, and vicis. 

2. Some end in itus, and denote origin or manner ; as, 

cozlitus, from heaven ; funditus, from the bottom ; rddicitus, by the roots ; from 
caelum, fundus, and radix. . 

3. Some are merely the different cases of nouns used adverbially ; 

as, 

(a.) Some adverbs of time ; as, mane, noctu, diu, tempdre or tempdrl, initio, 
principio, mddo. — (b.) Adverbs of place; as, fdris, fdrds. — (c.) Adverbs of 
manner; as, sponte, forte, gratis or grdtiis, ingrdtils, vulgd, partim. 

II. From Adjectives and Participles. 

By far the greater number of derivative adverbs come from adjec- 
tives and participles (present and perfect), and end in e and ter. 

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives and participles of the second 
declension, are formed by adding e to the root ; as, 

o&gre, scarcely; alte, high; libere, freely; longe, far; misere, miserably; plene, 
fully; docie, learnedly; ornate, elegantly; from aiger, altus, liber, longus, miser, 
plenus, doctus, and orndtus. Bene, well, is from bdnus, or an older form benus. 

Eemaek. A few adverbs in e differ in meaning from their adjectives ; as, 
sane, certainly ; valde, very ; from sdnus, sound, well ; and vdlidus, strong. 

Exc. 1. A few adverbs derived from adjectives and participles of 
the second declension, add iter, itus, im, or atim to the root ; as, 

naviter, actively ; antiquitus, anciently ; divinities, divinely ; privdtim, privately ; 
tuatim, after your manner ; singulatim, singilldtim, sigilldtim, or singuliim, sever- 
ally ; cwsim, carptim, sensim, stdtim, etc. from ndvus, antiquus, divinus, privdtus, 
tuus, singull, cazsus, carptus, etc. 

Exc. 2. Some adverbs are formed with two or more of the above termina- 
tions with the same meaning; as, dure, dmiter ; firme, firmxter ; nave, naviter; 
large, largiter ; lutulente, luculenter ; turbulente, turbulenter : so caute and cautim ; 
humane, humaniUr, and humanitus ; publice and publlcitus. 

2. Adverbs derived from adjectives and participles of the third de- 
clension, are formed by adding iter to the root, except when it ends 
in t, in which case er only is added ; as, 

dcriter, sharply; fehciter, happily; turpiter, basely; — cleganUr, elegantlv; 
prudenter, prudently; dmante'r, lovingly; properanter, hastily ; from deer, fchx, 
turpis, elegans, prudens, dmans, and prdp>erans. So also from the obsolete dlis 
for alius, and prdpis, (neuter prdpe), come dliter and propter for prdpiter. 

Exc. From audax comes by svneope audacter ; from fortis comes foriUSr ; 
from omnis, omnino ; from fiber, ubertim ; and from nequam, nequiUr. 



§192. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 161 

3. From the cardinal numerals are formed numeral adverbs in 
tes ; as, 

quinquies, decies, from quinque and decern. So toties and qudties, from tdt and 
qudt. See § 119. 

4. Some adverbs are merely certain cases of adjectives. Such 
are, 

(a.) Ablatives in 6, from adjectives and participles of the second declension; 
as, citd, quickly; continud, immediately; /also, falsely; crebro, frequently; 
merito, deservedly ; necdpindto, unexpectedly ; fortuito, by chance ; auspicdto, 
auspiciously; consults, designedly; and a few in a from adjectives of the first 
declension ; as, recta, straight on ; una, together. In like manner, repente, sud- 
denly, from repens ; and peregre or peregri, from pereger. 

(b.) Nominatives or accusatives of the third declension in the neuter singu- 
lar ; as, facile, difficile, recens, sublime, and impune ; and some also of the 
second declension ; as, ceterum, plerumque, nudtum, plunmum, potissimum, pau- 
lum, nUnium, parum, and the numeral adverbs, primum, iterum, tertium, quar- 
tum, etc. which have also the termination in 6, and so also postremum (o), and 
•ultimum (o). The neuter plural sometimes occurs also, especially in poetry; as, 
multa geraere ; tristid ululdre ; crebrd ferire. 

(c.) Accusatives of the first declension; as, bifariam, trifariam, multifariam, 
omnifariam, etc. scil. partem. 

Note 1. The forms in e and 6 from adjectives of the second declension have 
generally the same meaning, but vere and ve.ro have a somewhat different 
sense. Vere, truly, is the regular adverb of verus, true; but vero is used in 
answers, in the sense of ' in truth,' or ' certainly.' In this use it is added to the 
verb used in the question ; as, adfuistine hert in convivw ? The affirmative an- 
swer is ego vero adfui, or without the verb, ego vero, and negatively, minime 
n~ri>; and as vero thus merely indicates a reply, it is often untranslatable into 
English. — Certo, on the other hand, usually takes the meaning of the adjective 
certus, while certe often signifies ' at least ' ; as, victi sumus, aut, si dignitas vinci 
non pdtest, fracti certe ; but certe is frequently used in the sense of ' certainly,' 
especially in the phrase certe scio. 

Note 2. Some adjectives, from the nature of their signification, have no 
corresponding adverbs. Of some others, also, none occur in the classics. Such 
are aniens, dirus, discors, gnarus, rudis, trux, imbellis, immobilis, and similar com- 
pounds. In place of the adverbs formed from vetus and fidus, vetuste and an- 
tZqve are used for the former, and fideliter for the latter, from velustus, aniiquiis, 
and fidClis. 

III. From the adjective pronouns are derived adverbs of place, 
etc. (See § 191, Rem. 1.) 

Remark. The terminations 6 and uc denote the place whither, instead of the 
accusative of the pronoun with a preposition; as, to for ad turn locum; hue for 
ad hunc locum; the terminations ae and inc denote the place from which; 
i and ic, the place in which ; and a and ac, the place by or Hirough ivhich ; as, 
ed ; via or parte being understood. 

IV. (a.) A few adverbs are derived from prepositions ; as, subtus, beneath ; from 
sub; propter, near; from prope. (b.) Mordicus and versus are derived from the 
verbs mordeo and verto. 

Remark. Diminutives are formed from a few adverbs; as, clam, clnnculum; 
primum, primulum ; celerius, celeriuscule ; sapius, scepiuscule ; bene, belle, belli*- 
time. 

14* 



162 COMPOSITION OF ADVERBS. § 193. 

, COMPOSITION OF ADVERBS. 

§ 1 03. Adverbs are compounded variously : — 

1. Of an adjective and a noun; as, postridie, qudtidie, magnopere, maximdpere', 
summdpere, quantopere, tantdpere, tantummddo, solummddo, multimddis, qudtannis — 
of postero die, magnd upere, etc. 

2. Of a pronoun and a noun ; as, hddie, qudre, qudmddd — of hoc die, qua re, etc. 

3. Of an adverb and a noun ; as, nudius, sapenumerd — of nunc dies, etc. 

4. Of a preposition and a noun ; as, comminus, eminus, illico, dbiter, extemplo, 
dbmam, postmodd, admddum, propediem — of con, e, and mdnus ; in and Idcus ; etc. 

5. Of an adjective and a pronoun; as, dlidqui or dlidquin, ceterdqui or cete?'6- 
quin — of alius and qui, i. e. alio quo (mddo), etc. 

6. Of a pronoun and an adverb ; as, aliquamdiu, dlicubi — of dliquis, diu, and 
iibi ; nequdquam and nequicquam — of ne and quisquam. 

7. Of two verbs ; as, ilicet, scilicet videlicet of ire, scire, videre, and licet. 

8. Of an adverb and a verb ; as, qudlibet, ubivis, undelibet. So deinceps — from 
dein and cdpio ; duntaxat — from dum and taxo. 

9. Of a participle with various parts of speech ; as, deorsum, dextrorsum, 
Jiorsum, retrorsum, sursum — of de, dexter, hie, retro, super, and vorsus or versus. 

10. Of two adverbs ; as, jamdudum, quamdiu, tamdiu, cummaxime, tummaxtme, 
quousque, sicut. 

11. Of a preposition and an adjective; as, denuo, imprimis, cumprimis, ap- 
prime, incassum — of de ndvo, inprimis, etc. 

12. Of a preposition and a pronoun; as, quapropter, posted, inter ed, prmtered 
hacteniis, qudtenus, dliqudtenus, edtenus — ot propter qua', post ea or earn, etc. 

13. Of a preposition and an adverb ; as, dbhinc, ddhuc, derepente, intenbi, in- 
terdiu, interdum, persape. 

14. Of two or three prepositions; as, insuper, protinus, inde, dein, deinde, 
perinde. 

15. Of a conjunction and an adverb; as, necubi, sicubi — of ne, si, and dlXcubi. 
SB. Of an adverb and a termination scarcely used except in composition; 

as, ibidem, pdrumper, quanddcumque, iibique, utcumque. 

17. Of three different parts of speech; as, forsitdn — of fors, sit, &n, quemad- 
mddum, quamobrem, etc. 

18. Of an adverb and an adjective; as, nimirum; utpote. 

19. Of an adjective and a verb ; as, quantumvis, quantumlibet. 

Signification of certain Compound and Derivative Adverbs. 

1. The adverbs continuo, protinus, stdtim, confestim, subito, repente and dere- 
pente, actutum, illico, ilicet, extemplo, signify in general ' directly ' or ' imme- 
diately ' ; but, strictly, continuo means, ' immediately after ' ; stdtim, ' without 
delay ' ; confestim, ' directly ' ; subito, ' suddenly, unexpectedly ' ; protinus, ' far- 
ther,' viz. in the same direction, and hence, ' without interruption ' ; repente 
and derepente, 'at once,' opposed to sensim, ' graduaUy,' (see Cic. Off. 1, 33); 
actutum, ' instantaneously,' i. q. eodem actu ; illico, and more rarely ilicet, ' forth- 
with, the instant,' (Virg. Mn. 2, 424, Cic. Mur. 10) ; so also extemplo, (Liv. 41, 1). 

2. Praisertim, pracipue, imprimis, cumpri?nis, apprime, are generally trans- 
lated ' principally,' but, properly, praisertim is ' particularly,' and sets forth a 
particular circumstance with emphasis; prcedpue, from praedpio, has reference 
to privilege, and signifies ' especially ' ; imprimis and cumprimis, signify ' prin- 
cipally, ' or * in preference to others ' ; and apprime, • before all, 1 ' very, 1 is used 



§ 194, 195. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. PREPOSITIONS. 163 

in pure Latin to qualify and strengthen only adjectives. Adm.6dM.ra properly 
signifies ' according to measure,' that is, ' in as great a measure as can be,' 
'very, exceedingly.' With numerals it denotes approximation, 'about.' Ad- 
modum nihil and admddum nullus signify 'nothing at all' and 'no one at all.' 

3. ^f^do is the usual equivalent for ' only.' Solum, ' alone,' ' merely,' points 
to something higher or greater. Tantum, 'only,' 'merely,' intimates that some- 
thing else was expected. The significations of solum and tantum are strength- 
ened by mddo, forming solummddo and tantummddo. Duntaxat, ' only, solely,' is 
not joined with verbs. It also signifies ' at least,' denoting a limitation to a 
particular point. Saltfrn also signifies ' at least,' but denotes the reduction of a 
demand to a minimum ; as, Eripe mihi hunc dolorem, aut minue saltern. 

4. Fruslrd implies a disappointed expectation ; as in frustra suscipere labores. 
Nequicquam denotes the absence of success, as in Hor. Carm. 1, 3, 21. Incas- 
sum, composed of in and cassum, ' hollow ' or ' empty,' signifies ' to no purpose ' ; 
as, tela incassum jacere. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

§ 191, 1. Adverbs derived from adjectives with the termi- 
nations e and ter, and most of those in o, are compared like their 
primitives. 

2. The comparative, like the neuter comparative of the adjective, 
ends in ius ; the superlative is formed from the superlative of the ad- 
jective by changing us into e ; as, 

dure, durius, durissime ; fdeiU, fdcilius, fdcillime ; dcriler, dcrius, acerrlme ; 
rdro, rdrius, rurissime; mature, mdturius, mdturissime or mdturrime. 

3. Some adverbs have superlatives in o or um; as, meritissimo, plurimum, 
pr'ano or prlmum, j^issimum. 

4. If the comparison of the adjective is irregular or defective, (see 
§§125, 126), that of the adverb is so likewise ; as, 

bene, melius, optime ; male, pejus, pessime; parum, minus, minime ; multum, 
plus, plmimum ; — , j^rius, primd or prlmum; — , dcius, ocissime; — , detenus, 
aeterrime; — , pdtiiis, pdtissime or pvtissimum; merito, — , meritissimo ; satis, sd- 
tius, — . Muyis, maxime, (from rnagnus,) has no positive; nuper, niiperrime, has 
no comparative. Prope, pr&jnus, proxime : the adjective prdpidr has no posi- 
tive in use. The regular adverb in the positive degree from uber is wanting, 
its place being supplied by ubertim, but uberius and uberrima are used. So in- 
stead of ti-is/iter, trtsiS, the neuter of tristis, is used, but the comparative tristius 
is regular; and from socors only socoi'dius, the comparative, is in use. 

5. JJiu a nd sa>pe, though not derived from adjectives, are yet compared; — 
diu, dititius, diutissime ; s&pe, scepius, saipissime. A comparative temperius, from 
Ump&ri or tempur't, also sometimes occurs. So secus, secius. 

6. Adverbs, like adjectives, are sometimes compared by prefixing 
mugls and maxime ; as, mayis aperte, maxime accommodate. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 19o. 1. A preposition is a particle which expresses the 
relation between a noun or pronoun and some preceding word. 

2. Prepositions express the relations of persons or things, either to one 
another, or to actions and conditions ; as, amor meus erya te, my love toward 
thee ; eo ad te, I go to thee. 



164 



PREPOSITIONS. 



§195. 



3. Some prepositions have the noun or pronoun which follows 
them in the accusative, some, in the ablative, and some, in either the 
accusative or the ablative. 

4. Twenty-six prepositions have an accusative after them : — 



ad, to, towards, at, for. 
adversus, ) against, 
adversum, ) towards. 
ante, before. 

apud, at, with, near, be- 
fore, in presence of. 

clrcum, | a ™» d > «**<*• 
circiter, about, near. 

■J- [ on this side, within. 

contra, against, opposite. 
erga, towards, opposite. 



extra, without, beyond. 
infra, under, beneath. 
inter, between, among, 

during. 
intra, within. 
juxta, near to, next to. 
6b, for, on account of, 

before. 
penes, in tJie power of, 

with. 
per, through, throughout, 

by, during. 
pone, behind. 



post, after, sirice, behind. 
prater, past, before, 

against, beyond, besides. 
prope, near by, nigh. 
propter, near, on account 

of- 

secundum, after, behind, 
along, next to, accord- 
ing to. 

supra, above, over. 

trans, over, beyond. 

ultra, beyond. 



5. Eleven prepositions have after them an ablative : — 
a, ) 

ab, \from, after, by. 
abs, )' 



de, from, down from, of- prae, before, for, on ac- 

ter, of, concerning. count of, in comparison 

e, ) out of, from, of, by, with. 

absque, without, but for. ex, \ after. pro, before, for, instead 

coram, before, in pres- palam, before, in pres- of, according to. 

ence of. ence of. sine, without. 



cum, with. 



tenus, as far as, up to. 



6. Five prepositions take after them sometimes an accusative, 
and sometimes an ablative : — 

clam, without the knowl- sub, under, about, near. super, above, over; upon, 

edge of. subter, under, beneath. concerning. 

In, in, on ; to, into, against. 

Remark 1. Prepositions are so called, because they are generally placed be- 
fore the noun or pronoun whose relation they express. They sometimes, how- 
ever, stand after it. Cf. § 279, 10. 

Rem. 2. A is used only before consonants ; ab before vowels, and frequently 
before consonants, though rarely before labials : abs is obsolete, except in the 
phrase abs te. 

E is used only before consonants, ex before both vowels and consonants. 

Rem. 3. Versus, which follows its noun, (cf. § 235, R. 3), usque, and exad- 
versus (--urn), sometimes take an accusative, simul and prdcul, an ablative, and 
are then by some called prepositions. SScus, with an accusative, occurs in 
Pliny and Cato. 

Rem. 4. Many of the prepositions, especially those which denote place, are 
also used as adverbs. Cf. § 191. 

Signification and Use of certain Prepositions. 

Rem. 5. (a.) A d denotes direction, and answers to the questions Whither? 
and Till when? as, Venio ad te. Sophocles id summam senetiutem tragcedias 
fecit. Cic. It also denotes a fixed time; as, ad horam, at the hour; adtempus 
illiquid facere, — at the right time. But sometimes ad tempus denotes ' for a 
time.' Sometimes, also, ad denotes the approach of time ; as, ad lucem, ad ves- 
peram, ad extremvm, towards day-break, etc. ; and also the actual arrival of a 
time ; as, ad prima signa veris profectus, at the first sign of Spring. 



§195. PREPOSITIONS. 165 

(b.) In answer to the question Where? ad signifies 'near' a place; as, dd 
urbem esse ; ad portas urbis ; pugna navdlis ad Tenedum. It is used like in, 4 at,' 
in such phrases as ad cedem BeUdnm, or, without adem, ad Opis ; negotium habere 
ad portum. — With numerals it may be rendered ' to the amount of' or * nearly ' ; 
as, dd ducentos. It is also used like circiUr without any case ; as, Occ'isis ad 
hominum millibus quatuor. — The phrase omnes dd unum signifies, ' all without 
exception,' • every one.' 

(c.) Ad often denotes an object or purpose, and hence comes its signification 
of ' in respect to ' ; as, hdmo da labores belli impiger. It is also used in figura- 
tive relations to denote a model, standard, or object of comparison, where we 
say ' according to ? ' or ' in comparison with ' ; as, dd mddum, dd effigiem l dd simil- 
ititdinem, dd speciem alicujusrei; dd normam, etc. dd volunidtem alicujus facer e 
aliquid. Ad verbum signifies, 'word for word'; nihil dd hanc rem, 'nothing in 
comparison with this thing.' 

Rem. 6. Apud expresses nearness to, and was primarily used of persons as 
dd was applied to things. Apud also denotes rest, and dd direction, motion, etc. 
Hence it signifies ' with,' both literally and figuratively. With names of places 
it signifies ' near,' like dd; as, Male pugndtum est apud Caudium. But in early 
writers, apud is used for iiij j as, Augustus apud urbem Nolam extinctus est, — at 
Nola. — With me, te.se, or the name of a person, it signifies ' at the house ' or 
' dwelling of ; as, Fuisti apud Lcecam ilia node. — Before appellatives of persons 
having authority in regard to any matter, it is translated ' before,' ' in the pres- 
ence of ; as, apud judices, apud proetorem, apud populum. — It is also used with 
names of authors, instead of in with the name of their works ; as, Apud Xeno- 
phontem, but Ave cannot say in Xenophonte. 

Rem. 7. Adversus, contra, and erg a signify ' opposite to.' Contra de- 
notes hostility, like our ' against ' ; ergd, a friendly disposition, 4 towards ' ; and 
adversus is used in either sense. But ergd sometimes occurs in a hostile sense. 

Rem. 8. Intra signifies 'within,' in regard both to time and place. In re- 
gard to place it is used in answer to both questions Where? and Whither? It 
denotes time either as an entire period, when it is equivalent to ' during,' or as 
4 unfinished,' when it corresponds with ' under,' or ' before the expiration of.' 

Rem. 9. Per, denoting place, signifies, 'through,' and also 4 in,' in the sense 
of ' throughout.' — With the accusative of persons it signifies ' through,' ' by the 
instrumentality of.' It often expresses the manner; as, per literas, by letter; 
per injuriam, per scelus, with injustice, criminally; per iram, from or in an- 
ger; per simulationem, per speciem, per causam, under the pretext; per occa- 
sionem, on the occasion ; per ridiculum, in a ridiculous manner. — It sometimes 
signifies ' on account of ' ; as, per valetudinem, on account of illness. — Per me 
licet, — so far as I am concerned. 

Rem. 10. A or db, denoting time, is used with nouns, both abstract and 
concrete, with the same general meaning; as, d prima addte, db ineunte cetdte, 
db initio mtdtis, db infanhu, a pueritid, do adolescentid ; and, a puero, a pueris, 
db adolescentulo, db infante, all of which signify ' from an early age.' So also, 
d parvis, a parvulo, a tenero, a teneris vnguiculis, which expressions are of 
Greek origin. — Ab initio, a principio, a pritno, properly denote the space of time 
from the beginning down to a certain point; as, Urbem Rdmam a principio re- 
ges habuere, i. e. for a certain period after its foundation. But frequently db 
initio is equivalent to initio, in the beginning. — The adherents or followers of a 
school are often named from its head; as, d Platone,db Aristote'le, etc. — In comic 
writers db is sometimes used instead of the genitive ; as, ancilla db Andrid. — 
In a figurative sense it signifies ' Avith regard to ' ; as, db equitdtu firmus. — With 
names of persons it also denotes relationship, and signifies ' on the side of ' ; 
as, Augustus d matre Magnum Pompeium artissimo contingebat grddu, — on his 
mother's side. — Stdtim, conftstim, recens db aliqud re, ' immediately after.' — 
Ab itinire aliquid facer e, to do a thing while on a journey. 

Rem. 11. Cum is used not only to designate accompanying persons but also 
accompanying circumstances ; as, cum aliquo ire ; hostes cum detrimento sunt 



166 PREPOSITIONS. 



§195. 



depute. It signifies also ' in,' i. e. ' dressed in ' ; as, cum tunica, pulld sedere. 
With verbs implying hostility, it signifies ' with,' in the sense of ' against ' ; as, 
cum aliquo helium gerere ; cum aliquo queri, to complain of or against. 

Kem. 12. D e commonly signifies 'concerning,' ' about.' Hence traditur de 
Eomero is very different from traditur db Homero ; in the former, Homer is the 
object, in the latter the agent. — In the epistolary style, when a new subject 
is touched upon, de signifies ' in regard to,' ' as respects ' ; as, de frdtre, conjido 
ita esse, ut semper volui. — It often signifies ' down from ' ; and also ' of,' in a 
partitive sense ; as, hdmo de plebe, unus de populo. — From its partitive significa- 
tion arises its use in denoting time; as, in comitium de node venire, i. e. even by 
night, or spending a part of the night in coming; hence multd de node, media 
de node, ' in the depth of night,' ' in the middle of the night.' — In other cases, 
also, it is used for ex or db; as, Audivi hoc de parente meopuer. Cic. ; especially 
in connection with emere, mercdri, conducere. Tnumphum agere de Gallis and 
ex Gallis are used indiscriminately — Sometimes, like secundum, it signifies ' in 
accordance with,' ' after ' ; as, de consilio meo : — sometimes it denotes the man- 
ner of an action ; as, denuo, de integro, afresh; de improviso, unexpectedly; de 
industria x purposely : — qua de re, qua de causa, quibus de causis, for which reason 
or reasons. 

Rem. 13. Ex , ' from,' ' out of.' Ex equo pugndre, to fight on horseback ; 
so ex itinere scribere : ex adverso, e regione, opposite ; ex omni parte, in or from 
all parts. — Ex vino or ex aqua coquere or bibere, i. e. ' with wine,' etc. are medi- 
cal expressions. — It sometimes denotes manner ; as, ex animo lauddre, to praise 
heartily; exsententid and ex voluntate, according to one's wish. — It is also, like 
de, used in a partitive sense ; as, unus e plebe, unus e multis. 

Rem. 14. In, with the accusative, signifying 'to' or 'into,' denotes the 
point towards which motion proceeds; as, in adem ire; or the direction in 
which a thing extends ; as, decern pedes in altitudinem, in height ; so, also, it 
denotes figuratively the object towards which an action is directed, either 
with a friendly or a hostile design ; as, amor in patriam, odium in malos cives, 
in milites liberdlis ; oratio in aliquem, a speech against some one. — It also de- 
notes a purpose ; as, pecunia data est in rem militdrem. Pax data Philippo in 
has leges est, on these conditions. — With words denoting time, it expresses a 
predetermination of that time, like 'for'; as, invitare aliquem in posterum diem, 
for the following day. In diem vivere, to live only for the day ; in futurum, 
in posterum, in reliquum, for the future ; in aternum, in perpetuum, forever ; 
in praisens, for the present : with all these adjectives tempus may be supplied. 
In with singuli, expressed or understood, denotes a distribution, and may be 
translated ' to,' ' for,' ' on,' ' over.' — In singulos dies, or simply in dies, with 
comparatives and verbs denoting increase, signifies 'from day to day.' — 
In some phrases it denotes the manner of an action ; as, servilem in mddum, 
mirum in mddum ; so in universum, in general ; in commune, in common ; 
in vicem, alternately, or, instead of ; in alicujus Idcum alxquid petere, in the 
place, or, instead of. 

Rem. 15. In , with the ablative, signifies ' in,' ' on,' ' upon,' and answers to 
the question, Where ? When a number or quantity is indicated, it signifies 
' among,' and. is equivalent to inter. It may sometimes be translated ' with,' 
or 'notwithstanding'; as, In summd copia oratdrum, nemo tdmen Ciceronis 
laudem aquavit. — With nouns which by themselves denote time, such as 
seculum, annus, mensis, dies, nox, vesper, etc., the time, in answer to the ques- 
tion When? is expressed by the simple ablative; but in is used with words 
which acquire the signification of time only by such connection; as, in con- 
suldtu, in principio, in bello; but even with these in is sometimes omitted, but 
is usuallv retained in connection with the gerund or gerundive ; as, in legendo, 
in legendis libris. In pr&senti, or in prmsentia, signifies ' at the present mo- 
ment,' ' for the present.' — Est in eo, ut aliquid Jiat signifies that something is on 
the point of happening. 



196. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 167 



PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

§ 106. Most of the prepositions are used also in forming com- 
pound words. In composition, they may be considered either in 
reference to their form, or their force. 

I. (a.) Prepositions in composition sometimes retain their final 
consonants, and sometimes change them, to adapt them to the sounds 
of the initial consonants of the words with which they are compound- 
ed. In some words, both forms are in use ; in others, the final con- 
sonant or consonants are omitted. 

1. A, in composition, is used before m and v ; as, dmdveo, dvello, and some- 
times before f in dfui and afore, for abfui and abfore. Ah is used before 
vowels, and before d,f, h, j, l, n, r, and s; as, abjuro, abrdgo, etc. Abs occurs 
only before c, q, and t; as, abscondo, absque, abstineo. In aspello, aspernor, and 
asporto, the b of abs is dropped ; in aufero and aufugio, it is changed into u. 

2. Ad remains unchanged before vowels and before b, d, h, m, v. It often 
changes d into c,f, g, I, n, p, r, s, t, before those letters respectively; as, ac- 
cedo, affero, aggrcdior, allego, annltor, appono, arrigo, assequor, attollo. Its d is 
usually omitted before s followed by a consonant, and before gn; as, aspergo, 
aspicio, agnosco, agndtus. Before q, the d is changed into c ; as, acqulro. 

3. Ante remains unchanged, except in anticipo and antisto, where it changes 
e to i; but antesto also occurs. *— 

4. Circum in composition remains unchanged, only in circumeo and its de- 
rivatives the m is often dropped; as, circueo, circuilus, etc. 

5. Cum (in composition, com), retains m before b, m, p; as, combibo, com- 
mitto, compono: before I, n } r, its m is changed into those letters respectively; 
as, colligo, conriitor, corripw: before other consonants, it becomes n; as, con~ 
duco, conjungo. Before a vowel, gn or h, m is commonly omitted; as, coeo, 
coopito, cognosco, cohabito; but it is sometimes retained; as, comedo, comes, c6mi- 
tar. In cogo and cogito a contraction also takes place ; as, cddgo, cogo, etc. In 
comburo, b is inserted. 

6. Ex is prefixed to vowels, and to c, h, p, q, s, t ; as, exeo, exlgo, excurro, ex- 
htbeo, expedlo. Before f, x is assimilated, and also rarely becomes ec ; as, cffe- 
ro, or ecfero. S after x is often omitted; as, exequor, for exsequor ; in excidtum 
(from exscindo), s is regularly dropped. E is prefixed to the other consonants; 
as, ebibo, edlco, except in eclex. Before these however, with the exception of n 
and r, ex is sometimes used; as, exmoveo. E is sometimes used before p ; as, 
epoto. 

7. In remains unchanged before a vowel. Before b, m, p, it changes n into 
m; as, imbuo, immilto, impono : before I and r, n is assimilated; as, illigo, irretio: 
before ,971, n is omitted; as, igndrus. Before the other consonants in is un- 
changed. In some compounds, in retains d before a vowel, from an ancient 
form indu; as, indigena,indigeo, indolesco. So anciently induperdtor, for im- 
perdtor. 

8. Inter remains unchanged, except in intelUgo and its derivatives, in which 
r before I is assimilated. 

9. Ob remains unchanged before vowels and generally before consonants. 
Its b is assimilated before c, f, g, p ; as, occurro, officio, oggannio, oppeto. In 
dmitto, b is dropped. An ancient form obs, analagous to abs for ab, is implied 
in obsolesco, from the simple verb oleo, and in ostendo, for obslendo. 

10. Per is unchanged in composition, except in pellicio and sometimes in 
ptlluceo, in which r is assimilated before I. In pejero, r is dropped. 

11. Post remains unchanged, except in pomcerium and pomerididnus, in 
which st is dropped. 



168 PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. § 197. 

12. Prce and prater in composition remain unchanged, except that pree is 
shortened before a vowel. Cf. § 283, II. Exc. 1. 

13. Pro has sometimes its vowel shortened, (cf. § 285, 2, Exc. 5) and, to avoid 
hiatus, it sometim#3s takes d before a vowel ; as, prodeo, prodesse, prbdlgo. 
Before verbs beginning with r and I, pro sometimes becomes por and pot; as, 
porrigo, polllceor. 

14. Sub in composition remains unchanged before a vowel and before b, d, j, 
I, n, s, t, v. Before c, f, g, m, p, r, its b is regularly assimilated ; as, succeao, 
suffero, suggero, summoveo, supplico, surrtpio. Before c, p, and t, it sometimes 
takes the form sits from subs, analogous to abs and obs ; as, suscipio, suspendo, 
sustollo: b is omitted before s, followed by a consonant; as, suspicio. 

15. Subter and super in composition remain unchanged. 

16. Trans remains unchanged before a vowel. It omits s before s; as, 
transcendo : in Irddo, traduco, trdjicio, and trdno, ns is commonly omitted. 

(&.) The following words are called inseparable prepositions, be- 
cause they are found only in composition : — 

AmbI or amb, (Greek &/u<pi), around, about. Red or re, again, back. Ve, not. 
Dls or di, asunder. Se, apart, aside. 

1. Amb is always used before a vowel ; as, ambages, ambarvdlis, ambedo, am- 
bigo, ambio, amburo : except ampulla, dmicio, and dnhelo. Before consonants it 
has the forms ambi; as, ambidens, ambifdriam, ambwium .• am ; as, amplector, 
amputo : or an ; as, anceps, anfractus, anqulro. 

2. Bis is prefixed to words beginning with c, p, q, s before a vowel, t, and h ; 
as, discutio, dispono, disqulro, distendo, dishiasco : but disertus is formed from dis- 
sero ; before /, s is changed into f; as, differo : in dirimo, and diribeo (from 
dis hdbeo), s becomes r. JDi is prefixed to the other consonants, and to s when 
followed by a consonant; as, dldiico, dimitto, distinguo, dispicio. But both dis 
and di are used before j ; as, disjungo, dijudico, and before r in rumpo. 

3. Red is used before a vowel or h ; re before a consonant; as, reddmo, redeo, 
redhibeo, redigo, redoleo, redundo ; — rejicio, repono, revertor. But red is used be- 
fore do ; as, reddo. The connecting vowel i is found in redivivus ; and in the 

Eoetical forms relligio, relliquixe, and sometimes in reccido the d is assimilated, 
a later writers re is sometimes found before a vowel or h. 

4. Se and ve are prefixed without change; as, secedo, securus; vegrandis, 
vecors. 

§ 10T. II. Prepositions in composition usually add their own 
signification to that of the word with which they are united ; but 
sometimes they give to the compound a meaning different from that 
of its simples. The following are their most common significations : — 

1. A, or ab, away, from, down ; entirely ; un-. With verbs it denotes re- 
moval, disappearance, absence; as, aufero, abator, absum. With adjectives it 
denotes absence, privation ; * , dmens, absonus. 

2. Ad, to, toward; at, by. In composition with verbs ad denotes (a) motion 
to, (not into), as, accedo; (b) addition, as, ascribo; (c) nearness, as, assideo; 
(d) assent, favor, as, annuo, arrideo; (e) repetition and. hence intensity, as, accl- 
do ; (/) at, in consequence of, as, arrigo. It is sometimes augmentative, rarely 
inchoative. 

3. Ambi, around, about, on both sides. 

4. Circum, around, about, on all sides. 

5. Cdm or c6n, together, entirely. In composition with verbs it denotes (a) 
union, as, concurro, consulo ; (b) completeness, as, comburo, conficio; (c) with 
effort, as, conjtcio, conclamo; (d) in harmony, as, consono, consentio; (e) on or 
over, like the English be-, as, coliino, to besmear. 



§197. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 169 

6. Contra, against, opposite. 

7. De, off, away, through, over, down; entirely; very, extremely. With 
verbs de denotes (a) dcnon; as,demitto; (b) removal; as.detondeo; (c) absence; 
as, desum, dehabeo; (d) prevention; as, dehortor; (e) unfriendly feeling ; as, 
despicio, derideo. — With adjectives de denotes (a) down; as, declivis ; (6) without ; 
as, demens. 

8. Dis, asunder, apart, in pieces, in two^ dis-, un-; very greatly. With 
verbs dis denotes (a) division; as, divido, dllabor ; (b) difference ; as, discrepo, 
dissentio; (c) th4t reverse of the simple notion ; as, displlceo, diffldo; (d) intensity; 
as, dilaudo. — With adjectives dis denotes difference; as, discolor, discors. 

9. E, or ex, out, forth, away, upward, without, -less, un-; utterly, com- 
pletely, very. With verbs it denotes (a) out; as, exeo, exlmo, elaboro; (b) re- 
moval of something; as, edormio; (c) publicity ; as, edico; {d) ascent; as, exsisto; 
(e) completeness ; as, edisco, exuro; (f) with denominative verbs, change of 
character; as, expio, effero (are); (g) removal of what is expressed by the noun 
whence the verb is derived; as enodo; (h) the reversal of the fundamental idea ; 
as, explico; (i) distance; as, exaudio. — With adjectives formed from substan- 
tives it denotes absence ; as, exsomnis. 

10. In, with verbs, signifies in, on, at; into, against; as, inhabito, induo, inge- 
mo, ineo, illido. With adjectives, un-, in-, im-, 0-, ir-, not; as, ignotus, inhospi- 
tatis, immortalis. Some of its compounds have contrary significations, accord- 
ing as they are participles or adjectives; as, intectus, part., covered, adj., un- 
covered. 

11. Inter, between, among, at intervals. 

12. Ob, with verbs, signifies to, towards; as, dbeo, ostendo ; against; as, obluc- 
tor, obnuntio ; at, before; as, dbambulo, obversor; upon; as, occulco ; over; as, 

obduco. 

13. Per, with verbs, denotes, through, thoroughly, perfectly, quite; as, per- 
duco, perficio, perdo : with adjectives, through, very ; as, pernox, perlevis. 

14. Post, after, behind. 

15. PrcE in composition with verbs denotes (a) before in place; as, prsemitto ; 
(b) by or past; as, prasfluo; (c) in command; as, prsesum, prseficio; (a) superior- 
ity ; as, praesto; (e) before in time ; as, prsedico, prsecerpo; at the extremity; as, 
prgeuro. — With adjectives, {a) before in place or time ; as, prseceps, praescius ; 
(6) very; as, praealtus, praeclarus. 

16. Prater, past, by, beyond, besides. 

17. Pro, before, forward, forth, away, down; for; openly; as, proludo, por- 
rigo, proterreo, protero, prdcuro, proflteor. 

18. Re", again, against, back, re-, un-, away; greatly; as, refloresco, rependo, 
referio, refigo, recondo. 

19. Se, without, aside, apart; as, securo, sepono, secedo, seciirus. 

20. Sub, up, from below upwards, under. With verbs sub also signifies (a) 
assistance; as, subvenio; {b) succession; as, succlno; (c) inplace of; as, sufficio; 
(d) near; as, subsum; (e) secretly, clandestinely; as, surripio, subauco; (f) some- 
what, a little; as, subrideo, subacctiso. — With adjectives.it signifies, slightly, 
rather ; as, stibobscurus, subabsurdus, subacidus. 

21. Subter, beneath, under, from under, secretly, privately. 

22. Super, above, over, left over, remaining, super-; as, supersedeo, super sum, 
superstes, supervdcdneus. 

23. Trans, over, across, through; beyond; as, trado, transeo, transfigo, 
transalpine. 

24. Ve, not, without ; very ; as, vegrandis, vecors ; vepallXdus. 

Remark. In composition the preposition seems often to add nothing to the 
signification of the word with which it is compounded. 

15 



170 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 



§198 



§ 108* A conjunction is a particle which connects words or 
propositions. 

The most usual conjunctions are, 



and, as; 

if- 

o that, so. 

whether. 



than. 



atque, 

ac, 

ac si, as 

adeo, 

an, 

anne. 

annon, whether or not. 

antequam, before. 

at, ast, but. 

at enim, but indeed. 

atqul, but. 

attamen, but yet. 

aut, either, or. 

aut...aut, either. ..or. 

autem, but. 

ceterum, but, however. 

ceu, as, like as, as if. 

cum or quum, since. 

donee, as long as, until. 

dum, provided, while, as 

long as, until. 
dummodo, if but, if only. 
enimvero, in very deed. 

!?™> I for. 
etenim, y 

eo, therefore. 

equidem, indeed. 

ergo, therefore. 

et, and. 

et...et ) both.. .and; 

et...que, } as well.. .as. 

et... neque or nee, on the 

one hand, but not on the 

other. . 
etiam, also. 
etiamsi, ) although, 
etsi, j though. 
iccirco, * 
Ideo, 
lgitur, 
Itaque, 

licet, though, although. 
modo, provided. 
nam, namque, for 



therefore. 



neither, 
..nor. 



not 
on 



ne, lest, that not. 

-ne, whether. 

neque or nee, neither, nor. 

neque.. .neque, ' 

nec.nec, 

neque.. .nee, 

nee.. .neque, 

necne, or not. 

neque, neither, nor. 

neque or nee. .et, 

neque or nee. ..que, # 

the one hand, but on the 

other. 
neve or neu, nor, and not. 
neve.. .neve, \ neither... 
neu.. .neu, J nor. 
nl, nisi, unless. 
num, whether. 
praeut, in comparisonwith. 
profit, according as, just 

as, as. 
proinde, hence, therefore. 
propterea, therefore, for 

that reason. 
postquam, after, since. 
priusquam, before. 
quam, as, than. 
quamvis, although. 
quando, quandoquidem, 

whereas, since. 
quamquam, although. 
quapropter, "J 

quocirca, J 

quantumvis, | although, 

quamlibet, j however. 

quasi, as if, just as. 

-que, and. 

-que...et, ) both. ..and; 

-que. ..-que, ) as well...as. 

quia, because. 

quin, but that, that not. 



quo, in order that. 
quoad, as long as, until. 
quod, because, but. 
quodsi, but if. 
quominus, mat not. 
quoniam, since, because. 
quoque, also. 
quum or cum, when, since, 

because. ' 
quum.. .turn, both...and. 
sed, but. 

Scufi, \ so as, just as, as. 

si, if 

si modo, if only. 

simul, ) as soon 

simulac (-atque) ) as. 

sin, but if if however. 

slve or seu, or if. 

siquidem, if indeed, since. 
tamen, however, still. 
tametsi, although. 
tamquam, as if. 
turn.. .turn, both.. .and. 
unde, whence. 
fit, | that, as that, so that, 
utl, ) to the end that. 
ut si, as if. 
utrum, whether. 

vS,' | dihtr " W ' 

vel...vel, either...or. 

velut, ) even as, just as, 

veluti, j like as. 

vero, truly, but indeed. 

verum, but. 

veruntamen, yet, notwith- 
standing. 

verum-enim vero, but in- 
deed. 



quippe, because. 

Conjunctions, according to their different uses, are divided into 
two general classes, — coordinate and subordinate. 

I. Coordinate conjunctions, are such as join coordinate or similar 
constructions; as, 

Luna et stella fulgebant, The moon and the stars were shining. Concidunt 
venti, fugiuntque nubes, The winds subside, and the clouds ' disperse. Difficile 
factu est, sed condbor tamen, It is difficult to accomplish, but still I will try. 



§ 198. CONJUNCTIONS. 171 

Coordinate conjunctions include the following subdivisions, viz. copulative, 
disjunctive, adversative, illative, and most of the causal conjunctions. 

II. Subordinate conjunctions are such as join dissimilar construc- 
tions ; as, 

Edo, ut vivam, I eat that I may live. Pyrrhus rex in itinere incidit in canem, 
qui interfecti hominis coipus custodiebat. Mergi pullos in aquam jussit, ut bibe- 
rent, quoniam esse nollent. 

Subordinate conjunctions include all those connectives which unite sub- 
ordinate or dependent clauses. These are the concessive, illative, final, condi- 
tional, interrogative, and temporal conjunctions, and the causals quod, quum, quo- 
niam, etc. To these may be added also the relatives whether pronouns, adjec- 
tives, or adverbs. 

The following paragraphs contain a specification of the several conjunctions comprised 
in each of the preceding subdivisions, and remarks respecting their particular import 
and use as connectives. 

1. Copulative conjunctions connect things that are to be considered joint- 
ly; as, et, dc, a tque, the enclitic que, which, combined with the negation 
belonging to the verb, becomes neque or nee, and, the negation being doubled, 
nee nbn or neque non, it becomes again affirmative and equivalent to e t . 
To these are to be added etiam and quo que , with the adverb ials item and 
itidem. 

Remark, (a.) Et and que differ in this, et connects things which are con- 
ceived as different, and que adds what belongs to, or naturally flows from them. 
Et, therefore, is copulative and que adjunctive. Hence, in an enumeration of 
words, que frequently connects the last of the series, and by its means the pre- 
ceding idea is extended without the addition of any thing which is generically 
different. In connecting propositions que denotes a consequence, and is equiv- 
alent to ' and therefore.' 

(b.) Ac never stands before vowels, atque chiefly before vowels, but also be- 
fore consonants. — Atque, being formed of ad and que, properly signifies ' and 
also,' 'and in addition,' thus putting things on an equality, but giving emphasis 
to the latter. In the beginning of a proposition, which is explanatory of that 
which precedes, atque or dc introduces a thing with great weight, and may be 
rendered ' now ' ; and in answers ; as, Cognosttne hos versus t Ac memoriter, it 
is rendered ' yes, and that.' Ac being an abridged form of atque loses some- 
what of its power in connecting single words, and its use alternates with that 
of et ; it is preferred in subdivisions, whereas the main propositions are con- 
nected by et. 

(t.) Neque, compounded of the ancient ne for non and que, is used for et non. 
Et non itself is used, when only one idea or one word of a proposition is to be 
negatived; as, patior et non moleste fero ; and also when our 'and not' is 
used for ' and not rather ' to correct an improper supposition ; as, Si quam Ru- 
brius injuriam suo nomine ac non impulsu tuo fecisset. Cic. Et non is commonly 
found also in the second clause of a sentence when et precedes, but neque, 
also, is often used in this case. Nee non or neque non, in classical prose, is not 
used like et to connect nouns, but only to join propositions, and the two words 
are separated. In later writers, however, they are not separated and are 
equivalent to et. 

(d.) Etiam has a wider extent than qudque, for it contains the idea of our 
' even,' and it also adds a new circumstance, whereas qudque denotes the ad- 
dition of a thing of a similar kind. Hence Zliam is properly used to connect 
sentences, while qudque, refers to a single word. Etiam signifies ' and further,' 
qudque, ' and so,' ' also.' Qudqui always follows the word to which it refers, 
etiam in similar cases is usually placed before it, but when it connects proposi- 
tions its place is arbitrary. Et, too, in classical prose, is sometimes used in 
the sense of ' also.' So often is non mddo — sed et, 'not only — but also,' or ' but 
even.' 



172 CONJUNCTIONS. § 198. 

(e.) Copulative conjunctions are often repeated in the sense of both — and,' 
* as well — as,' 'not only — but also' Et — et is of common occurrence; so, in 
later writers, but rarely in Cicero, et — que ; que — et connect single words, but 
not in Cicero; que — que, occur for the most part only in poetry, or in connec- 
tion with the relative. — Negative propositions are connected in English by 
' neither — nox*,' and in Latin by neque — neque, nee — nee, neque — nee, and rarely 
by nee — neque. Propositions, one of which is negative and the other affirma- 
tive ' on the one hand — but not on the other,' or, 'not on the one hand — but on 
the other,' are connected by et — neque or nee, neque or nee — et, and occasionally 
by nee or neque — que. 

2. Disjunctive conjunctions connect things that are to be considered sepa- 
rately; as, aut, vel, the enclitic ve, and slve or sea. 

Remark, (a.) Aut and vel differ in this; aut indicates a difference of the 
object, vel, a difference of expression, i. e. aut is objective, vel, subjective. 
Vel is connected with the verb velle, and is generally repeated, vel — vel, ' choose 
this or choose this,' and the single vel is used by Cicero only to correct a pre- 
ceding expression, and commonly combined with dicam, 2x)tius, or eiiam. — 
Hence by ellipsis vel has acquired the signification of the adverb, ' even,' and 
so enhances the signification of the word modified by it; as, Quum Sophocles 
vel optime scripserit Electram, where bene is to be supplied before vel, and the 
latter is used for the purpose of correcting the preceding expression. Cf. § 127, 4. 
By means of its derivation from velle it has, also, the signification of for ex- 
ample' or 'to take a case,' for which velut is more frequently used. — (b.) Ve, 
the apocopated vel, leaves the choice free between two or more things, and in 
later but good prose vel is used in the same manner. 

(c.) Slve commonly retains the meaning of si, and is then the same as vel si, 
but sometimes loses it, and is then equivalent to vel, denoting a difference of 
name; as, Vocabulum slve appellatio. Quint. The form sew is rarely used by 
Cicero except in the combination seu potius. — (d.) Aut and ve seiwe to continue 
the negation in' negative sentences, where we use ' nor ' ; as, non — aut, where 
non — neque also may be used. They are used also in negative questions ; as, 
Num leges nostras moresve novit? Cic. ; and after comparatives; as, Doctrina 
paulo asperior, quam Veritas aut natura patidtur. Cic. It is only when both 
ideas are to be united into one that a copulative is used instead of aut and ve. — 
(e.) ' Either — or' is expressed in Latin by aut — aut, denoting an opposition be- 
tween two things, one of which excludes the other, or by vel — vel, denoting 
that the opposition is immaterial in respect to the result, so that the one need 
not exclude the other ; as, Vel imperatore vel milite me utimini. Sail. — Slve — 
slve is the same as vel si — vel si, and retains the meaning of vel — vel. If nouns 
only are opposed to each other, an uncertainty is expressed as to how a thing 
is to be called; as, Cretum leges, quas slve Jupiter slve Minos sanxit; i. e. I do 
not know whether I am to say Jupiter or Minos. 

3. Comparative conjunctions express a comparison. These are, tit or titl, 
sictit, velut, protit, praitit, the poetical ceu, quam, tamquam, (with 
and without si), quasi, tit si, dc si, with dc and atque, when they sig- 
nify ' as.' 

Remark. Ac and atque signify ' as ' or ' than ' after adverbs and adjectives 
which denote similarity or dissimilarity; as, aique, juxtd, par and pariter, 
perinde and proinde, ])rd eo, similis and similiter, dissimilis, talis, tdtidem, alius 
and dliter, contra, secus, conirdrius. — Quam is rarely used after these words, 
except when a negative particle is joined with alius; as, Virtus nihil aliud est, 
quam, etc. ; and et and que do not occur in this connection. — Ac is used for 
quam, after comparatives, in poetry and occasionally by late prose writers; as, 
Artius atque hedera. Hor. Jnsdnius ac si. Id. 

4. Concessive conjunctions express a concession, with the general signifi- 
cation 'although.' These are etsl, etiamsl, tametsl, or tdmenetsl, 
quamquam, quamvis, quantumvls, quamlibit, licet, tit in the 
sense of ' even it*' or ' although,' and quum when it signifies 'although.' 

Remark. Tdmen and other particles signifying 'yet,' 'still,' are the correl- 
atives of the concessive conjunctions; as, Ut desmt vires t tamen est laudanda 



§ 198. CONJUNCTIONS. 173 

mluntas. Ovid. The adverb quldem becomes a concessive conjunction, when it 
is used to connect propositions and is followed by sed. — Quamquam, in absolute 
sentences, sometimes refers to something preceding, which it limits and partly 
nullifies; as, Quamquam quid loquorf let why do I speak? 

5. Conditional, conjunctions express a condition, their fundamental signi- 
fication being 'if.' These are si, sin, nisi or nl, si mddo, dummddd, 
4 if only,' 'if but,' (for which dum and mddo are also used alone), dum- 
mddd' ne, or simply mddo ne or dumne. 

Remark, (a.) In order to indicate the connection with a preceding proposi- 
tion, the relative qudd, which in such case loses its signification as a pronoun, 
and may be rendered, 'nay,' 'now,' 'and,' or 'then,' is frequently put before 
si and sometimes before nisi and etsl, so that quodsi may be regarded as one 
word, signifying ' now if,' ' but if,' or ' if then.' It serves especially to intro- 
duce something assumed as true, from which further inferences may be drawn. 
It sometimes signifies ' although.' Quodnisl signifies ' if then — not,' and quod- 
etsl, ' nay, even if.' Qudd is found also before quum, vbl, quia, qudniam, ne, uti- 
nam, and even before the relative pronoun. 

(b.) Ni and nisi limit a statement by introducing an exception, and thus dif- 
fer from si ndn, which introduces a negative case. It is often immaterial 
whether nisi or si ndn is used, but the difference is still essential. Si ndn is 
used when single words are opposed to one another, and in this case si rninus 
may be used instead of si ndn. — If after an affirmative proposition its negative 
opposite is added without a verb, our ' but if not ' is commonly expressed iu 
prose by si minus or sin minus or sin dliier ; as, Educ tecum etiam omnes tuos ; 
si minus, quam plunmos. Cic. ; rarely by si ndn. 

6. Illative conjunctions express an inference or conclusion, with the gen- 
eral signification of ' therefore,' 'consequently.' These are ergo, igilur, 
itdque, ed, ideo, iccirco , proinde , propter e a , and the relative con- 
junctions, quapropter, qudre, quamobrem, qudcirca, unde, ' where- 
fore.' 

Remark. Ergo and igitur denote a logical inference. — Itdque, ' and thus,' 
expresses the relation of cause in facts. — ldeo, iccirco, and proptered, ' on this 
account,' express the agreement between intention and action. — Ed, ' on this 
account,' or ' for this purpose,' is more frequently an adverb of place. — 
Proinde, ' consequently,' implies an exhortation. — Unde, ' whence,' is properly 
an adverb of place. — Adeo, ' so that,' or simply ' so,' is also properly an adverb. 
Hinc, ' hence,' and inde, ' thence,' continue to be adverbs. 

7. Causal conjunctions express a cause or reason, with the general signifi- 
cation of ' for ' and 'because.' These are nam, nam que, enim, etenim, 
quid, qudd , qudniam, qu ipp e , quum, quando, quanddquidtm, 
siq uidem; and the adverbs nimlrum, nempe, scilicet, and videlicet. 

Remark, {a.) Nam is used at the beginning of a proposition, enim, after the 
fir^t or second word. Nam introduces an objective reason, and enim merely a 
subjective one. There is the same difference between namque and etenim. 
Namque, however, though constantly standing at the beginning of a proposi- 
tion in Cicero, Ciesar, and Nepos ? is in later writers often put after the begin- 
ning. Enim in the sense of at enim or sed enim is sometimes, by comic writers, 
put at the beginning of a proposition. — Nam, enim, and etenim are often used 
in the sense of ' namely,' or ' to wit,' to introduce an explanation of some- 
thing going before. Nimlrum, videlicet, and scilicet likewise answer to our 
'namely' or 'viz.' Nimlrum, compounded of ni and mirum, and signifying 
'a wonder if not,' is used as a connective in the sense of 'undoubtedly' or 
' surely,' and implies strong confidence in the truth of the proposition with 
which it is connected. — Videlicet and scilicet introduce an explanation, with 
this difference that nideUcet generally indicates the true, and scilicet a wrong 
explanation. Sometimes, however, nam, enim, etenim, nimlrum, and videticet 
are used in an ironical sense, and scilicet introduces a true reason. — Nempe, 
1 surely,' often assumes a sarcastic meaning when another person's concession 
is taken for the purpose of refutiug him. — \b.) Quid and qudd indicate a defi- 
15* 



174 CONJUNCTIONS, § 198. 

nite and conclusive reason, qudniam, (i. e. quum jam), a motive. — Ideo, iccirco, 
proptered qudd, and quid, are used without any essential difference, except that 
quid introduces a more strict and logical reason, whereas qudniam, signifying 
'now as,' introduces important circumstances. — Quando, quanddquidem, and 
siquidem approach nearer to qudniam than to quid, as they introduce only sub- 
jective reasons. Quanddquidem denotes a reason implied in a circumstance 
previously mentioned ; siquidem, a reason implied in a concession. In siquidem 
the meaning of si is generally dropped, but it sometimes remains, and then si 
and quidem should be written as separate words ; as, fortundtam rempubli- 
cam, si quidem hanc sentinam eiecemt. Cic. — Quippe, with the relative pronoun 
or with quum, introduces a subjective reason. When used ellipticaily without 
a verb it signifies ' forsooth ' or ' indeed.' Sometimes it is followed by a sen- 
tence with enim, and in this way gradually acquires the signification ox nam. 

8. Final conjunctions express a purpose, object, or result, with the signifi- 
cation of ' in order that,' or ' in order that not.' These are ut or uti, quo, 
ne or ut ne, neve or neu, quin and quominus . 

Eemark. Ut, as a conjunction, indicates either a result or a purpose, ' so 
that,' and ' in order that.' When indicating a result, if a negative is added to 
it, it becomes ut ndn ; when indicating a purpose, if the negative is added, it, 
becomes ne or ut ne, but ut ndn also is very rarely used for ne. — Neve (i. e. vel ne) 
signifies either ' or in order that not,' or ' and in order that not.' Ut ne is a 
pleonasm, not differing perceptibly from ne. It is used more frequently by 
Cicero than by other writers. Quo ne for ne occurs once in Horace. 

9. Adversative conjunctions, express opposition, with the signification of 
'but.' These are sed, autem, verum, vero, at (poetical ast), at 
enim, atqui, tdmen, attdmen, sedtdmen, veruntdmen, at vero, 
(enimvero ), verumenim, verum, vero, ceterum. 

Eemark. (a.) Sed denotes a direct opposition, and interrupts the narrative or 
argument ; autem marks a transition, and denotes at once a connection and an 
opposition. Porro, ' further,' denotes progression and transition but not oppo- 
sition, except in later authors. — Verum has a similar relation to vero as sed to 
autem. Verum, while it denotes opposition, contains also an explanation. Vero 
connects things which are different, but denotes the point in favor of which the 
decision should be. It thus forms the transition to something more important, 
as in the phrase, Illud vero plane non est ferendum, i. e. that which I am about 
to mention. In affirmative answers vero is often added to the verb ; as, Dasne f 
Do vero. Hence, when the protasis supplies the place of a question, it is some- 
times introduced into the apodosis merely to show that it contains an answer. 
Hence also vero alone signifies ' yes,' like sane, Ud, and etiam. — Enimvero, ' yes, 
truly,' ' in truth,' does not denote opposition. It sometimes, like vero, forms 
the transition to that which is most important. The compound verum enim- 
vero denotes the most emphatic opposition. 

(b.) At denotes that that which is opposed is equivalent to that which pre- 
cedes. < It frequently follows si, in the sense of ' yet,' or ' at least ' ; as, etsi non 
sapientissimus, at amicissimus. It is especially used to denote objections whether 
of the speaker himself or of others. At enim introduces a reason for the objec- 
tion implied in at. — By atqui, 'but still,' 'but yet,' or 'nevertheless,' we admit 
what precedes, but oppose something else to it ; as, Magnum narras, vix credi- 
bile. Atqui sic habet. Hor. So, also, when that which is admitted, is made 
use of to prove the contrary. Finally, atqui is used in syllogisms, when a thing 
is assumed which had before been left undecided; in this case it does not de- 
note a direct opposition of facts, and may be translated by ' now,' ' but,' ' but 
now.' — Ceterum, properly ' as for the rest,' is often used by later writers for 
sed. — Contra ea, in the sense of ' on the other hand,' is used as a conjunction. 
So ddeo with a pronoun, when it may be translated 'just,' ' precisely,'' ' even,' 
' indeed,' or an intensive ' and.' 

10. Temporal conjunctions, express time. These are quum, quum pri- 
mum, ut, ut primum, ubi, postquam, antiquam, and prius- 
quam, quando, simuldc or simulatque, or simul alone, dum, 
usque" dum, ddnlc, quoad. 



§ 198. CONJUNCTIONS. 175 

Remark. TJt and ubi, as particles of time, signify ' when.' Bum, donee, and 
quoad signify either 4 as long as,' or ' until.' Dum often precedes intered or in- 
terim, and both dum and donee are often preceded by the adverbs usque, usque 
to or usque ddeo. 

11. Interrogative conjunctions indicate a question. These are, num, 
ut rum, an, and the enclitic n e . This, when attached to the three preced- 
ing particles, forming numne, utrumne , and anne, does not affect their 
meaning. With n 6 n it forms a special interrogative particle nonne. To 
these add ec and en, as they appear in ecquis, ecquando , and enum- 
quam, and numquid and* ecquid, when used simply as interrogative 
particles. 

Remark, (a.) The interrogative particles have no distinct meaning by 
themselves in direct questions, but only serve to give to a proposition the form 
of a question. In direct speech the interrogative particles are sometimes 
omitted, but in indii'ect questions they are indispensable, except in the case of 
a double question, where the first particle is sometimes omitted. — Ecquid and 
numquid, as interrogative particles, have the meaning of num, quid in this case 
having no meaning, but they must be carefully distinguished from the inter- 
rogative pronouns ecquid and numquid. En, or when followed by a q, ec is, 
like num, ne, and an, an interrogative particle, but is always prefixed to some 
other interrogative word. 

(b.) In direct questions, num and its compounds numne, numnam, numquid, 
mnnquidnam, and the compounds with en or ec suppose that the answer will be 
'no'; as, Num putas me tarn dementem fuisse f But ecquid is sometimes used 
in an affirmative sense. In general the negative sense of these particles does 
not appear in indirect questions. 

(c.) Ne properly denotes simply a question, but it is used sometimes affirma- 
tively and sometimes negatively." When ne is attached, not to the principal 
verb but to some other word, a negative sense is produced ; as, mene istud potu- 
isse facere putas? Do you believe that I would have done that? The answer 
expected is ' no.' When attached to the principal verb ne often gives the af- 
firmative meaning, and the answer expected is ' yes.' — Nonne is the sign of an 
affirmative question ; as, Canis nonne lupo similis est f — Uirum, in accordance 
with its derivation from uter, which of two, is used only in double questions 
whether consisting of two or more. It is sometimes accompanied by ne, which 
is usually separated from it by one or more words ; as, Uirum, taceamne an 
pr-cedicem f In later writers, however, utrumne is united into one word. Ne is 
rarely appended to interrogative adjectives, but examples of such use are some- 
times found in poetry ; as, uterne ; quone malo ; quantane. In a few passages it 
is even attached to the relative pronoun. 

(d.) An is not used as a sign of an indirect question before the silver age; 
when so used it answers to ' whether.' It is used bv Cicero exclusively in a 
second or opposite question, where we use ' or ' ; as, Si sitis, nihil interest utrum 
aqua sit, an vinum; nee refert, utrum sit aureum poculum, an oitreum, an manus 
concdva. Sen. In direct interrogations, when no interrogative clause precedes, 
an, anne, an vero are likewise used in the sense of ' or,' that is in such a man- 
ner that a preceding interrogation is supplied bv the mind ; as, Invltus te offendi, 
an putas me delectdri kedendis hominibust Here we may supply before an 
putas, etc. the sentence, ' Do you believe this ? ' — An, after a preceding ques- 
tion, is rendered by ' not,' and it then indicates that the answer cannot be 
doubtful ; as, A rebus gerendis senectus abstrdhit. Quibus f An his, quae geruntur 
juventute ac viribus f Is it not from those kinds of business, which ? etc. Here 
we may suppose aliisne ? to be supplied before an his t Is it from other kinds 
of business, or from those ? etc. Such questions may be introduced by nonne, 
but without allusion to an opposite question, which is implied in an. 

(e.) To the rule that an, in indirect questions, is used exclusively to indicate 
a second or opposite question, there is one great exception, for it is employed 
in single indirect questions after such expressions as dubtto, dubium est, incertum 
est ; aelibero, haisito, and especially after nescio or hand scio, all of which denote 
uncertainty, but with an inclination to the affirmative ; as, Si per se virtus sine 



176 INTERJECTIONS. § 199. 

fortuna ponder anda sit, duUio an hunc primum omnium ponam, If virtue is to 
be estimated without reference to its success, I am not certain whether I should 
not prefer this man to all others. Nep. It is not Latin to say dubito annon for 
dubito an. — Nescio an, or hand scio an are used quite in the sense of ' perhaps,' 
so that they are followed by the negatives nullus, nemo, numguam, instead of 
ullus, quisquam and umquam. When the principal verb is omitted, an is often 
used in the sense of aut ; as, Themistocles, quum ei Simonides, an quis alius, 
artem memoriae polliceretur, etc. In such cases incertum est is understood, and 
in Tacitus is often supplied. — The conjunction si is sometimes used in indirect 
interrogations instead of num, like the Greek si, and it is so used by Cicero 
after the verb experior. 

Note 1. The conjunctions -ne, -que, -ve, are not used alone, but are always 
affixed to some other word, and are hence called enclitics. 

Note 2. Some words here classed with conjunctions are also used as ad- 
verbs, and many classed as adverbs are likewise conjunctions ; that is, they at 
the same time qualify verbs, etc., and connect propositions ; as, Ceteris in rebus, 
quum venit calamitas, turn detrimentum accipitur, In other concerns, when mis- 
fortune comes, then damage is received. 

Note 3. Conjunctions, like adverbs, are variously compounded with other 
parts of speech, and with each other; as, atque, (i. e. adque), iccirco or idcirco, 
(i. e. id-circa), ideo, namque, etc. In some, compounded of an adverb and a 
conjunction, each of the simple words retains its meaning, and properly belongs 
to its own class; as, etiam (et jam) and now; itdque, and so; neque or nee, and 
not. 

INTEKJECTIONS. 

§ 190. An interjection is a particle used in exclamation, 

and expressing some emotion of the mind. 

The most usual interjections are, 

ah! ah! alas! hem! oho! indeed ! well ! hah ! alas ! alack! 

aha! aha! ah! haha! heu! oh! ah! alas! 

apage ! away ! begone ! heus ! ho ! ho there ! hark ! halloa ! 

atat ! or atatte ! oh ! ah ! alas ! lo! hui ! hah ! ho ! oh ! 

au! or hau! oh! ah! i5! ho! hurrah! huzzah! 

ecce! lo! see! behold! o! o! oh! ah! 

ehem! ha! what! oh! oh! o! ah! 

eheu ! ah ! alas ! ohe ! ho ! halloa ! ho there ! 

eho! ehodum! ho! soho! oho! oho! aha! 

eia! or heia! ah! ah ha! indeed! oi! hoy! alas! 

en! lo! see! behold! papaef strange! wonderful! 

eu ! well done ! bravo ! phui ! foh ! jugh ! 

euge! well done! good! phy ! pish! tush! 

euax ! ) . 1M/ ,-* , t,,^^ , pro ! or proh ! oh ! ah ! 

euce ! J huzzah ' hurrah ! st ! hist .'whist ! hush ! 

ha! hold! ho! tatse! so! strange! 

ha! ha! he! ha! ha! vse! ah! alas! woe! 

hei! ah! wo! alas! vah! vaha! ah! alas! oh! 

' Remark 1. An interjection sometimes denotes several different emotions. 
Thus vah is used to express wonder, grief, joy, and anger. 

Rem. 2. Other parts of speech may sometimes be regarded as interjections; 
as, pax! be still! So indignum, infandum, malum, miserum, miserabite, nefas, 
when used as expressions of astonishment, grief, or horror; and made and 
macti, as expressions of approbation. In like manner the adverbs nm, prqfecio, 
dto, bene, belle ; the verbs quceso, prScor, oro } obsecro, amabo, age, dgite, cedo, 
sddes, (for si audes), sis, sultis, (for si vis and si vidtis), dgesis, dgeaum, and dgite 
dum, and the interrogative quid? what? used as exclamations. 



§ 200, 201. SYNTAX. PROPOSITIONS. 177 

Rem. 3. With the interjections may also be classed the following invoca- 
tions of the gods : hercules, hercule, hercle ; or mehercules, mehercule, mehercle ; 
meditts fidius, mecastor, ecastar, ecere, pol, edepol, equzrine, per deum, per 
deum immortdlem, per deos, per Jdvem, pro (or proh) Jupiter, pro dii immor- 
telles, pro deum fidem, pro deum atque homlnum fidem, pro deum immortalium 
(scil. /idem), etc. 



SYNTAX. 

§ 200. 1. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 

2. A sentence is a thought expressed in words ; as, Canes 
latrant, The dogs bark. 

3. All sentences are either 

(1.) Declarative; as, Venti spirant, The winds blow: — 
(2.) Interrogative; as, Splrantne venti? Do the winds blow ? — 
(3.) Exclamatory; as, Quam vehementer spirant venti! How 
fiercely the winds blow ! — or 

(4.) Imperative ; as, Venti, splrate, Blow, winds. 

4. The mood of the verb in the first three classes of sentences is either the 
indicative or the subjunctive; in imperative sentences it is either the impera- 
tive or the subjunctive. 

5. A sentence may consist either of one proposition or of two or 
more propositions connected together. 

PEOPOSITIONS. 

§ 901. 1. A proposition consists of a subject and a pre- 
dicate. 

2. The subject of a proposition is that of which something is 
affirmed. 

8. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 

Thus, in the proposition, Equus currit, The horse runs, equus is the 
subject and currit is the predicate. 

Note. The word affirm, as here used, includes all the various significations of the 
verb, as expressed in the several moods. 

4. Propositions are either principal or subordinate. 

5. A principal proposition is one which makes complete sense by 
itself; as, 

Phdcion fuit perpetuo pauper, quum ditissimus esse posset, Phocum was always 
poor, though he might have been very rich. 



178 SYNTAX. SUBJECT. § 202. 

6. A subordinate proposition is one which, by means of a subordi- 
nate conjunction, is made to depend upon or limit some part of 
another proposition ; as, 

Phocion fait perpetuo pauper, qiium ditisslmus esse posset, Phocion was al- 
ways poor, though he might have been very rich. 

7. Subordinate propositions are used either as substantives, adjec- 
tives, or adverbs, and are accordingly called substantive, adjective or 
adverbial propositions or clauses. 

8. Substantive clauses are connected with the propositions on which they 
depend by means of the final conjunctions ut, ne, quo, quin, etc., sometimes by 
quod, and, in clauses containing an indirect question, by interrogative pronouns, 
adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions. See §§ 262 and*265. 

Remark. A dependent substantive clause often takes the form of the accusative with 
the infinitive, and in that case has no connective; as, Gaudeo te valere. 

9. Adjective clauses are connected by means of relatives, both pronouns and 
pronominal adjectives; as, qui, qualis, quanius, etc. Adverbial clauses are con- 
nected either by relative adverbs of place and time, (§ 191, K. 1, (b.), or by 
temporal, conditional, concessive, comparative, and sometimes by causal con- 
junctions. 

10. A sentence consisting of one proposition is called a simple sen- 
tence ; as, 

Cadunt f6lia, The leaves fall. Semirdmis Babylonem condidit. 

11. A sentence consisting of a principal and one or more subordi- 
nate propositions is called a complex sentence ; as, 

Qui jit, ut nemo contentus vlvat ? How happens it, that no one lives content? 
Quis ego sim, me rogltas, You ask me, who I am. 

12. A sentence consisting of two or more principal propositions, 
either alone or in connection with one or more subordinate proposi- 
tions, is called a compound sentence ; as, 

Spirant venti et cadunt folia, The winds blow, and the leaves fall. 

13. The propositions composing a complex or a compound sen- 
tence are called its members or clauses ; the principal proposition is 
called the leading clause, its subject, the leading subject, and its verb, 
the leading verb. 

SUBJECT. 

§ 202. 1. The subject also is either simple, complex, or 
compound. 

2. The simple subject, which is also called the grammatical sub- 
ject, is either a noun or some word standing for a noun ; as, 

Aves vdlant, Birds fly. Tu legis, Thou readest. A est vocalis, A is a vowel. 
Mentlri est turpe, To he is base. 

3. The complex subject, called also the logical subject, consists of 
the simple subject with its modifications ; as, 

Conscientia bene actre vita? est jucundissima, The consciousness of a well spent 
life is very pleasant. Here conscientia is the grammatical, and conscientia bene ^ 
acta vitas the complex, subject. 



§ 202. SYNTAX. — SUBJECT. 179 

4. The compound subject consists of two or more simple or com- 
plex subjects to which a single predicate belongs ; as, 

Luna et stella? fulgebant, The moon and stars were shining. Grammatlce rrr 
musics junctce fuerunt, Grammar and music were united. Semper honos no- 
menque tuura laudesgwe mdnebunt. 

Remark. Words are said to modify or limit other words, when they serve 
to explain, describe, define, enlarge, restrict, or otherwise qualify their mean- 
ing. 

5. Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate, called 
its principal or essential parts : any sentence may also receive addi- 
tions to these, called its subordinate parts. 

Complex or Modified Subject. 

6. The complex subject is formed by adding other words to the 
simple subject. All additions to the subject, like the subject itself, 
are either simple, complex, or compound. 

I. Simple additions. The subject may be modified by adding : — 

1 . A single word : — 

(1.) A noun in the same case; as, 

Nos consules disumus, We consuls are remiss. Mucius augur multa narravit, 
Mucius the augur related many things. 

(2.) A noun or pronoun in an oblique case, modifying or limiting 
the subject ; as, 

Amor multitudlnis commdvetur, The love of the multitude is excited. Cura mei, 
Care for me. Viribus usus, Need of strength. 

(3.) An adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle ; as, 

Fiimt invida cetas, Envious time flies. Mea mater est benigna. Ducit agmlna 
Penthesilea furens. Liter a scripta mdnet. 

2. A phrase consisting of a preposition and its case ; as, 
SojMr in gramme. Oppida sine prassidio. Itecejjfio ad te. 

3. A dependent adjective clause introduced by qui, qualis, quan- 
lus, etc. ; as, 

Uve ft, quod bene fertur, onus, The burden, which is borne well, becomes 
light. Litem, quas scripsisti, accepta sunt. Ut, qualis .(ille) haberi vellet, 
U'dis esset. Tanla est inter eos, quanta maxima esse potest, morum distantia. 

II. Complex additions. The subject may be modified : — 
1. By a word to which other words are added. 
(1.) When the word to which other words are added is a noun or 
pronoun, it may be modified in any of the ways above mentioned. 
(2.) "When it is an adjective it may be modified : — 
(«.) By an adverb either simple or modified ; as, 
Evat exspectatio \a\de magna. Presidium non nimis frmum. 
(b.) By a noun in an oblique case ; as, 

Major pietdte, Superior in piety. Contentions ciipidus, Fond of contention. 
Patri similis, Like his father. tfi'idus membra. Juvenes patre digni. 



180 SYNTAX. SUBJECT. § 202. 

(c.) By an infinitive, a gerund, or a supine ; as, 

Insuetus vinci, Not accustomed to be conquered. Venandi studiosus, Fond of 
hunting. Mlrabile dictu, Wonderful to tell. 

(e?.) By a phrase consisting of a preposition and its case ; as, 
Rudis in republics*, Unskilled in civil affairs. Ab equitatu Jirmus. Celer in 
pugnam. Promts ad f idem. 

(e.) By a subordinate clause ; as, 

Melior est certapax, quam sperata victoria, A certain peace is better than an 
expected victory. DuMus sum, quid f aciam. 

(3.) When it is a participle, it may be modified like a verb. See 
§ 203. 

2. By a phrase consisting of a preposition and its case to which 
other words are added ; as, 

De victoria Caesaris fama perfertur, A report concerning Ccesar's victory is 
brought. 

Remark 1. As the case following the preposition is that of a noun or pro- 
noun, it may be modified like the subject in any of the foregoing ways. 

Rem. 2. The preposition itself may be modified by an adverb, or 
by a noun or adjective in an oblique case ; as, 

Longe ultra, Far beyond. Multo ante noctem, Long before night. Sexennio 
post Veios captos, Six years after the capture of Veii. 

3. By a subordinate clause, to whose subject or predicate other 
words are added. 

Remark. These additions may be of the same form as those added to the 
principal subject or predicate of the sentence. 

HE. Compound additions. The subject may be modified : — 

1. By two or more nouns in the same case as the subject, connect- 
ed by a coordinate conjunction ; as, 

Consules, Brutus et Collatinus, The consuls, Brutus and Collatinus. 

2. By two or more oblique cases of a noun or pronoun connected 
coordinately; as, 

Vltaeg'we necisg'we pdtestas. Perlculorum et labonim incitdmentum. 

3. By two or more adjectives, adjective pronouns, or participles, 
connected coordinately ; as, 

Grave helium perdiuturnum^we. Animi teneri atque molles. 

4. By two or more adjective clauses connected coordinately ; as, 
Et qui f ecere, et qui facta aliorum scripsere, multi laudantur. Sail. 

5. By two or more of the preceding modifications connected coor- 
dinately ; as, 

Genus hominum agreste, sine legibus, sine hnperio, liberum, atque solutum. 

Rem. 1. A modified grammatical subject, considered as one com- 
plex idea, may itself be modified ; as, 

Omnia tua consilia, All thy counsels. Hei-e omnia modifies, not consllia, but 
the complex idea expressed by tua consilia. So Triginta naves longoe. Prcepo- 
tens flnitimuB rex. 



§ 203. SYNTAX. — PREDICATE. 181 

Rem. 2. An infinitive, with the words connected with it, may bo 
the logical subject of a proposition ; as, 

Virtus est vitium fugere, To shun vice is a virtue. 

Rem. 3. A clause, or any member consisting of two or more clauses, 
may be the logical subject of a proposition ; as, 

E ccelo descendit ' Nosce te ipsum.' ^Equum est, ut hoc facias. 

Rem. 4. The noun or pronoun which is the subject of a proposi- 
tion is put in the nominative, when the verb of the predicate is a 
finite verb; but when the verb is in the infinitive, the subject is put 
in the accusative. 

Xote 1. A Tcrb in any mood, except the infinitive, is called a finite verb. 

Note 2. In the following pages, when the term subject or predicate ia used alone, the 
grammatical subject or predicate is intended. 

PREDICATE. 

§ 203. 1. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple, 
complex, or compound. 

2. The simple predicate, which is also called the grammatical pre- 
dicate, is either a single finite verb, or the copula sum with a noun, 
adjective, and rarely with an adverb; as, 

Sol lucet, The sun shines. Malta dnimalia re punt, Many animals creep. 
Brevis est vdbtptas, Pleasure is brief. Eurdpa est peninsula, Europe is a pe- 
ninsula. Rectissime sunt apud te omnia. 

3. The complex predicate, called also the logical predicate, con- 
sists of the simple predicate with its modifications ; as, 

Sdpio fudit Annibalis copias, Scipio routed the forces of Hannibal. Here 
fudit is the grammatical, and fudit Annibalis cojnas the logical predicate.— 
So, Romulus Romanse conditor urbis fait. 

4. The compound predicate consists of two or more simple or com- 
plex predicates belonging to the same subject ; as, 

Prdbttcu laudator et alget, Honesty is praised and neglected. Leti vis rapuit, 
rapietque gentes. Lucius Catilina fait magna vi et animi et corporis, sea in- 
genio malo pravoque. 

Complex or Modified Preancate. 

5. The complex predicate is formed by adding other words to the 
simple predicate. All additions to the predicate, like the predicate 
itself, are either simple, complex, or compound. 

I. Simple additions. The predicate may be modified by adding:— 

1. A single word; — 

(1.) A noun or adjective in the same case as the subject. This 
occurs after certain neuter verbs and passive verbs of naming, call- 
ing, etc. (See § 210, R. 3.) ; as, 

Servus Jit libertinus. The slave becomes a freedman. Servius Tullius rex es» 
decldrdtus. Aristides Justus est apptlldtus. Incedo regina. 

(2.) A noun or pronoun in an oblique case ; as, 
Spe vivimus, We live by hope. Deus regit mundum, God rules the world. 
1(5 



182 SYNTAX. PREDICATE. § 203. 

(3.) An adverb either simple or modified ; as, 

Saepe venit, He came often. Festlna lente, Hasten sbwly. Literal facile dis- 
cuntur. Chremes nlmis gravlter crucial adolescentulum. 

(4.) An infinitive mood ; as, 
Gtpit discere, He desires to learn. Audeo dlcere. Ver esse cceperat. 

2. A phrase consisting of a preposition and its case ; as, Venit ad 
urbem, He came to the city. 

3. A dependent substantive or adverbial clause ; as, 

Vereor ne reprehendar, I fear that I shall be blamed. Zenonem, qtram Athenis 
essera, audiebam frequenter. Fdc cogltes. 

II. Complex additions. The predicate may be modified : — 

1. By a word to which other words are added. 

Remark. These words are the same as in the corresponding cases of com- 
plex additions to the subject. See § 202, II. 

2. By a phrase consisting of a preposition and its case, to which 
other words are added. See complex additions to the subject, § 202. 

3. By a subordinate clause, to whose subject or predicate other 
words are added. See complex subject, § 202, II, 3. 

Rem. 2. Each of the words constituting a proposition may be modified by 
two or more additions not dependent on, nor connected with each other, and 
consisting either of single words, phrases, or dependent clauses ; as, Agamem- 
nonis belli gloria. Paternum odium erga Romanos. Mens sibi conscia recti. 
Mea maxime interest, te valere. Ago tibi gratias. Meipsum inertias condemno. 
Eos hoc mdneo. In quo te accuso. Mdnet eum, ut suspiciones vltet. 

HI. Compound additions. 1. The predicate may be modified by 
two or more words, phrases, or clauses, joined together by a coordi- 
nate conjunction. See Compound additions to the subject, § 202, III. 

2. The leading verb is usually either in the indicative or impera- 
tive mood, but sometimes in the subjunctive or the historical infin- 
itive. 

3. The members of a compound sentence are connected by coordi- 
nate conjunctions ; those of a complex sentence by some relative 
word, or by a subordinate conjunction. 

4. Instead of a dependent clause connected by a conjunction, a 
noun and participle, or two nouns, sometimes stand as an abridged 
proposition ; as, 

Bello confecto discessit, i. e. quum helium confectum esset, discessit, The war 
being finished, or when the war was finished, he departed. Nil desperandum, 
Teucro diice. 

5. An infinitive may be modified like the verb of a predicate. 

6. Agreement is the correspondence of one word with another in 
gender, number, case, or person. 

7. A word is said to govern another, when it requires it to be put 
in a certain case or mood. 

8. A word is said to depend on another, when its case, gender, 
number, mood, tense, or person, is determined by that word. 

9. A word is said to folloio another, when it depends upon it in 
construction, whatever may be its position in the sentence. 



§ 204. SYNTAX. — APPOSITION. 183 

APPOSITION. 

§ 304. A noun, annexed to another noun or to a pronoun, 

and denoting the same person or thing, is put in the same case ; 

as, 

Urbs Roma, The city Borne. Nos consules, We consuls. So Apud Heroddlum, 
patrem histdrice, sunt innumerabiles fabulas, In Herodotus, the father of history, 
etc. Cic. Lapides sillces, flint stones. Liv. Ante me consulein, Before I was 
consul. Fans cui nomen Arethusa est. Cic. 

Remark 1. (a.) A noun, thus annexed to another, is said to be in apposition 
to it. It is generally added for the sake of explanation, identification, or de- 
scription; sometimes it denotes character or purpose; as, Ejus fuga comltem 
me adjunxi, I added myself, as a companion of his flight; and sometimes the 
time, cause, reason, etc., of an action; as, Alexander puer, Alexander when a 
boy. Cdto senex scribere histdriam inslituit. Suet. 

(b.) A noun in apposition, like an adjective used as an epithet, (§ 205, N. 2,) 
assumes the attribute denoted by it as belonging to the noun which it limits, 
while the predicate-nominative affirms it. Hence both nouns belong to the 
same part of the sentence, whether subject or predicate. In cases of apposi- 
tion, there seems to be an ellipsis of the ancient participle ens, being; qui est, 
who is; qui vacatur, who is called; or the like. 

Rem. 2. If the annexed noun has a form of the same gender as the other 
noun, it takes that form; as, TJsus magister egregius. Plin. Philosdphia magis- 
tra vitas. Cic. If the annexed noun is of the common gender, the adjective 
qualifying it takes the gender of the preceding noun; as, Laurus fidisslma 
custos. 

Rem. 3. The annexed noun sometimes differs from the other in gender or in 
number ; as, Duo fulmina belli, Scipiddas, cladem Libya. Virg. Mttylenas, urbs 
nobilis. Cic. Tullidla, delicia? nostras. Id.; — and sometimes in both; as, Nate, 
meai vires. Virg. Nos, animaj viles, inhumdta infletdque turba. Id. 

Rem. 4. The substantive pronoun is sometimes omitted before the word in 
apposition to it; as, Consul aixi, scil. ego; (I) the consul said. And instead of 
the substantive pronoun, a possessive adjective pronoun is sometimes used; as, 
Tua domus, talis viri. Cic. See § 211, R. 3, (6.) 

Rem. 5. A noun may be in apposition to two or more nouns, and, in such 
case, is usually put in the plural; as, M. Antonius, C. Cassius, tribuni plebis, 
M. Antonius, C. Cassius, tribunes of the people. Cses. Publius et Servius Sullae, 
Servi f'tlii. Sail. Tib. et Gaius Gracchi. Cic. Oratidnes L. et C. Aureliorum 
Orestarum. Id. But sometimes in the singular; as, Cn. et L. Domitius. Cic. 

(1.) So when the nouns are connected by cum, the annexed noun taking 
the case of the former; as, Diaearchum vero cum Aiisloxeno, doctos sane hom- 
ines, omittdmus. Cic. 

(2.) If the nouns are proper names of different genders, a masculine noun is 
annexed rather than a feminine, when both forms exist; as, Ad Ptolemceum 
Cltopatramque reges legdti missi sunt. Liv. 

Rem. 6. The annexed noun is sometimes in the genitive ; as, Urbem Patavt 
lotdvit, The citv of Patavium. Virg. PluHmus Eridani amnis. Id. Arbdrem 
f Ici numquam viderat. Cic. In oppido Antiochiae. Id. Ruplli et Persi par. Hor. 

Rem. 7. The name of a town in the genitive occurs with an ablative in ap- 
position to it; as, Corinthi Achaiai urbe; At Corinth, a city of Achaia. Tac. 
Antiothice, ctlebri urbe. Cic. See § 221, Note, and § 254, Rem. 3. 

Rem. 8. (a.) A proper name, after nomen or cognomen, with a verb followed 
by a dative, is put in apposition either to nomen etc., or to the dative, the latter 
by a species of attraction ; as, Fons, cui nomen Arethusa est. Cic. Stirps virilis, 
cui Ascanium parentes dixere nomen. Liv. Nomen Arcturo est mihi, I have the 



184 SYNTAX. — ADJECTIVES. § 205, 

name Arcturus. Platit. Cui nunc cognomen Iulo additur. Virg. Cui Egerio indt- 
tum nomen. Liv. — (b.) The name may also be put in the genitive ; as, Nomen 
Mercurii est mihi. Plant. Q. Metellus, cui Macecionici nomen inditum erat. Veil. 
Cf. R. 6.-— (c.) In Ilia cetas, cui fecimus Aurea nomen, Ov. Met. 15, 96, Aurea 
is used as an indeclinable noun, instead of Auream (scil. cetdtem); ox Aurea, 
dat. (scil. cetdti.) 

Rem. 9. A clause may supply the place of one of the nouns ; as, Cogitet ora- 
torem institui — rem arduam, Let him reflect that an orator is training — a diffi- 
cult thing. Quint. — So also a neuter adjective used substantively; as, Triste 
lupus stabulis, The wolf, a sad thing to the folds. Virg. Varium et mutabile 
semper femina. Id. 

Rem. 10. Sometimes the former noun denotes a whole, and its parts are ex- 
pressed by nouns in apposition to it; as, Onerdrice, pars maxima ad JEgimurum, 
— alise adversus urbem ipsam deldtaz sunt, The ships of burden were carried, the 
greatest part, to jEgimurus, — others opposite to the city itself. Liv. Pktores 
et poetoz suum quisque opus a vulgo considerdri vult. Cic. In the construction 
of the ablative absolute, quisque remains in the nominative, though the word 
to which it is in apposition is in the ablative ; as, Multis sibi quisque imperium 
petentibus. Sail. J. 18. So also, in Liv. 26, 29, quisque remains in the nomina- 
tive although the word to which it is in apposition is in the accusative with 
the infinitive. 

To this rule may be subjoined that which relates to the agreement of inter- 
rogative and responsive words. 

Rem. 11. The principal noun or pronoun in the answer to a ques- 
tion, must be in the same case as the corresponding interrogative 
"word; as, 

Quis herus est tibi ? Amphitruo, scil. est. Who is your master? Amphitruo 
(is.) Plaut. Quid quceris f Librum, scil. qucero. What are you looking for? 
A book. Quota hard venisii ? Sexta. At what hour did you come ? At the 
sixth. 

Note 1. Instead of the genitive of a substantive pronoun, the corresponding 
possessive pronoun is often used, agreeing with its noun; as, Cujus est liber f 
Meus, (not Mei.) (See § 211, Rem. 3, (6.) So cujum for genitive cujus? Cujum 
jpecus ? an Melibcei ? Non ; verum JEgonis. Virg. 

Note 2. Sometimes the rules of syntax require the responsive to be in a 
different case from that of the interrogative ; as, Quanti emisti ? Viginli minis. 
J)amnatusne es furti? Imo alio crimlne. See §§ 214, R. 1, and 217, R. 2. 

ADJECTIVES. 

§ 205. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles, 
agree with their nouns, in gender, number, and case ; as, 

JBdnus vir, A good man. Bdnos viros, Good men. 

Benigna mater, A kind mother. Vance, leges, Useless laws. 

Triste bellum, A sad war. Mindcia verba, Threatening words. 

Bpe amissd, Hope being lost. ffcec res, This thing. 

So, Mea mater est benigna. 
Hate leges vdnce sunt. 
Note 1. Adjectives, according to their meaning, (§ 104), are divided into 
two classes — qualifying and limiting — .the former denoting some property or 
quality of a noun ; as, a wise man, lead is heavy ; the latter defining or restricting 
its meaning; as, this man, ten cities. To the former class belong such adjec- 
tives as denote a property or quality, including all participles and participial 
adjectives; to the latter, the adjective pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and 
numerals. 



§ 205. SYNTAX. — ADJECTIVES. 185 

Note 2. An adjective, participle, or pronoun, may either be used as an epi- 
thet to modify a noun, or, with the copula sum, may constitute a predicate. 
In the former case the quality is assumed, in the latter it is asserted. In both 
case?, the rule for their agreement is, in general, the same. See § 210, R. 1. 

Note 3. Any word or combination of words added to a noun to modify or 
limit its meaning is of the nature of an adjective. 

Note 4. In the following remarks, the word adjective is to be considered as including 
participles, either alone or combined with the auxiliary sum, and also adjective pro- 
nouns, unless the contrary is intimated. 

Remark 1. An adjective agrees also with a substantive pronoun, taking its 
gender from that of the noun for which the pronoun stands ; as, Ipse capettas 
®ger ago, scil. ego, Melibosus; Virg. Fortunate, puer, tu nunc eris alter ab illo. Id. 
Ul ee totum ei trdderet. Nep. me miserum (spoken by a man), miseram me 
(spoken by a woman). So salvi sumus, salves sumus, scil. nos, masculine or 
feminine. — In general propositions which include both sexes, the pronouns are 
considered masculine; as, Nos fruges consumere nati. Hor. 

Rem. 2. An adjective may belong to each of two or more nouns, 
and in such case is put in the plural. If the nouns are of the same 
gender, the adjective agrees with them in gender, as well as in num- 
ber; as, 

Lupus et agnus siti compulsi, A wolf and a lamb, constrained by thirst. Phsed. 
SU ilia Sarditiidque amissae. Liv. 

When the nouns are of different genders, 

(1.) If they denote living things, the adjective is masculine rather 
than feminine ; as, 

Pater mihi et mater mortui sunt, My father and mother are dead. Ter. So 
also uterque in the singular. Procumbit uterque, scil. Deucalion et Pyrrha. 
Ovid. 

(2.) If they denote things without life, the adjective is generally- 
neuter; as, 

His genus, atlas, eloquentia prdpe oequalia fuere, Their family, age, and elo- 
quence, were nearly equal. Sail. Regna, imperia, nobilitates, honores, divitice in 
cdeu sita sunt. Cic. Huic bella, rapinm, discordia civllis, grata fuere. Sail. 
Anima atque animus, quamvis integra recens in corpus eunt. Lucr. 

Note. When nouns denoting things without life are of the same gender 
(either masculine or feminine), but of different numbers, the adjective is some- 
times neuter ; as, Crceso et vita et patrimonii partes, et urbs Barce concessa 
sunt. Just.; sometimes also when both nouns are in the singular number; as, 
Plerosque velocitas et regio hoslibus igndra tutata sunt. Sail. Nox atque prazda 
remorata sunt. Id. 

(3.) If one of the nouns denotes an ^animate, and another an inan- 
imate thing, the adjective is sometimes neuter, and sometimes takes 
the gender of that which has life ; as, 

Numida atque signa militdria obscurati sunt, The Numidians and the military 
standards were concealed. Sail. Romdni regem regnwnque Macedonia, sua 
futura sciunt. Liv. Jane, fdc asternos pdeem pacisqu'e ministros. Ovid. 

Exc. to Rem. 2. The adjective often agrees with the nearest noun, 
and is understood with the rest; as, 

Sdciis et rege recepto, Our companions and king having been recovered. 
Virg. Agri omnes et maria. Cic. Cognitum est sdtulem, lioeros, fdmam, for- 
tunas esse carissimas. Cic. 
16* 



186 SYNTAX. — ADJECTIVES. § 205. 

Note. A noun in thfi singular, followed by an ablative -with cum, has some- 
times a plural adjective, the gender being the same as if the nouns were con- 
nected by et ; as, Filiam cum filio accltos. Liv. Ilia cum Lauso de Numitdre 
sati. Ovid. F ilium Alexandrv cum mdtre in arcem custodiendos mittit. Just. 

Kem. 3. (1.) An adjective qualifying a collective noun is often 
put in the plural, taking the gender of the individuals which the noun 
denotes; as, 

Pars certdre parati, A part, prepared to contend. Virg. Pars per agros 

dilapsi suam quisque spem exsequentes. Liv. Supplex turba erant sine judice 

tiiti. Ovid. This construction always occurs when the collective noun is the 
•ubject of a plural verb. See § 209, K. 11. 

(2.) Sometimes, though rarely, an adjective in the singular takes the gender 
of the individuals ; as, Pars arduus aids pulverulentus equis furit. Virg. Pars 
una ducum — fractus morbo. Ovid. 

(3.) Sometimes other nouns, which only in a figurative sense denote human 
beings, have by synesis an adjective of a different gender from their own, refer- 
ring to the words which they include; as, Ldlium Cdpudque agro mulctati, 
Latium and Capua were deprived of their land. Liv. Capita conjuratidnis vir- 
gis cassi ac securi percussi sunt. Id. Auxtlia Irati. Id. So after millia; as, 
Duo millia Ty riorum, crucibus affixi. Curt. Cf. § 323, 3, (4.) 

Kem. 4. Two adjectives in the singular are sometimes joined to a plural 
noun ; as, Maria Tyrrhenum atque Adriaticum, The Tuscan and Adriatic seas. 
Liv. Cum legidnibus secunda et tertia. Liv. Cii'ca portas Collinam Esquill- 
namque. Id. But sometimes the noun is in the singular; as, Inter JEsquilinam 
Cdlinamque portam. Id. Legio Martia et quarta. In comic writers, an adjec- 
tive or participle in the singular is sometimes used with a plural pronoun ;' as, 
Nobis pi-cesente. Plaut. Absente nobis. Ter. 

Rem. 5. A participle which should regularly agree with the subject of a 
proposition, when placed after the noun of the predicate, (a) sometimes takes 
the gender and number of the latter; as, Non omnis error stullitia est dicenda, 
Not every error is to be called folly. Cic. Gens universa Veneti appellati. Liv. 
(b.) Sometimes also it agrees with a noun following the subject and in apposi- 
tion to it; as, Cdrinihum, patres vestri, tdtius Gratia, lumen, exstinctum esse 
vdluerunt. Cic; or (c) with the noun of a subordinate sentence; as, llldrum 
urbem ut propugnaculum oppositum esse barbdris. Nep. 

Rem. 6. "When the subject of an infinitive is omitted after a dative of the 
same signification, (§ 239, R. 1,) an adjective in the predicate, belonging to 
that subject, is sometimes put in the dative; as, Mihi negligenti esse non licuit, 
i. e. me negligentem esse mihi non licuit. Cic. Da mihi justo sancto^e videri. 
Hor. A noun is sometimes expressed with the adjective; as, Vdbis necesse est 
fortibus esse viris. Liv. But the adjective often agrees with the omitted sub- 
ject; as, Expedit bonas esse vdbis, scil. vos. Ter. Si civi liomdno licet esse 
Gaditanum. Cic. 

Rem. 7. (1.) An adjective is often used alone, especially in the 
plural, the noun, with which it agrees, being understood ; as, 

Boni sunt rdri, scil. h&mines, Good (men) are rare. Cesar suos misit, scil. 
milites, Csesar sent his (soldiers). Dextra, scil. mdnus, The right (hand). Im- 
plentur pinyuis f erinae, scil. carnis. Virg. Hiberna, scil. castra. Altum, scil. 
mare. Quart ana, scil. febris. Immortelles, scil. Dii. Lucr. Amantium, scil. hdmi- 
num. Ter. Ilium indignanti similem, similemque minanti aspiceres, scil. hdmini. 
Virg. Tibi prlmas dtfero, scil. partes. Cic. Respice praetC-rltum, scil. tempos. 
which is often omitted, as in ex quo, ex eo, and ex Mo, scil. tempore. Cogadvi 
W raeorum omnium llteris, scil. dmicorum. Cic. So patrial adjectives; as, 
Missi ad Parthum Armeniumque legdti, scil. regem. In Tusculdno, scil. 
jircedio. 



§ 205. SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES. 187 

Note 1. The noun to be supplied with masculine adjectives is commonly 
hdmines, but when they are posessives, it is oftener dmici, milites, crves, or pro- 
pinqui. 

Note 2. The noun to be supplied is often contained in a preceding clause. 

(2.) An adjective in the neuter gender, without a noun, is often 
used substantively, where, in English, the word thing or things is to 
be supplied ; as, 

Bdnum, a good thing; malum, a bad thing, or, an evil. So hdnestum, verum, 
turpe ; and in the plural, bona, mala, turpia, levia, cceltstia, etc. Labor omnia 
vincit, Labor overcomes all things. Virg. 

Note 1. The Latins generally preferred adding res to an adjective, to using 
its neuter as a substantive. But sometimes, when res is used, an adjective or 
pronoun referring to it is put in the neuter instead of the feminine ; as, Edrum 
rerum utrumque. Cic. Eumdndrum rerum fortuna pleraque regit. Sail. Illud 
te rdgo, sumptui ne parcas ulla in re, quod ad vdletudinem Opus sit. Cic. Omnium 
rerum mors est extremum. Cic. 

Note 2. Instead of thing or things, other words may sometimes be supplied, 
as the sense requires. With a preposition, neuter adjectives form adverbial 

Ehrases ; as, A prima, At first. Plaut. Per mutua, Mutually. Virg. In primis, 
a the first place. Ad hoc, or Ad hcec, Moreover, besides. 

(3.) Adjectives used substantively often have other adjectives agreeing with 
them; as, Alia omnia, All other (things.) Plin. Inlquissumi mei, My greatest 
enemies. Familiar-is meus. Cic. Inlquus noster. Id. Justa funeoria. Liv. 
JOcis omnia plena, scil. sunt. Virg. 

Rem. 8. (a.) Imperatives, infinitives, adverbs, clauses, and words considered 
merely as such, may be used substantively, and take a neuter adjective in the 
singular number; as, Supremum vale dixit, He pronounced a last farewell. 
Ovid. Dulce et decorum est pro patria mOri. Hor. Velle suum cuique est. Pers. 
Cras istud uuando venit ? Mart. J. Redibo actutum. A. Id actutum diu est. 
Plaut. Excepto quod non slmul esses, cetera Uetus. Hor. (b.) In the poets and 
later prose writers the adjective, as in Greek, is sometimes in the neuter plural ; 
as, Tjt JEneas peldgo jactetur — nota tibi. Virg. 

Rem. 9. (a.) Adjectives and adjective pronouns, instead of agreeing with their 
nouns, are sometimes put in the neuter gender, with a partitive signification, 
and their nouns La the genitive ; as, Multum tempdris, for mulium tempus ; much 
time. Id rei, for ea res ; that thing. So, plus eldguentiai, the other form not 
being admissible with plus. (See § 110, {b.) Neuter adjectives are used in 
like manner in the plural; as, Vana rerum, for varus res. Hor. Pleraque humd- 
ndinim rerum. Sail. Cf. § 212, R. 3, N. 4. But in some such examples, the ad- 
jective seems to be used substantively, according to Rem. 7,(2); as, Acuta 
oelli. Hor. Telluris operta. Virg. Summa pectoris. 

Note. The adjectives thus used partitively in the singular, for the most 
part, signify quantity. See § 212, Rem. 3, Note 1. 

Rem. 10. A neuter adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the nomina- 
tive or accusative, both singular and plural; as, Dulce rldeniem Ldldgen dmdbo, 
dulce Uquentern. Hor. Magnum strldens. Virg. Anna horrendum sdnuere. Id. 
Multa deos venerdli sunt. Cic. Hodie aut summum cras. Id. See § 192, II. 4, (b.) 

Rem. 11. (a.) A noun is sometimes used as an adjective; as, Nemo miles 
Romdnus, No Roman soldier. Liv. Nemo fere ddolescens. Cic. Vir nemo bdnus. 
Id. Cf. § 207, R. 31, (c. ) Tiberim accolis jluv'ds orbatum. Tac. Incola turba. 
Ovid. The poets use in this manner the Greek patronymics in as and is; 
as, Pelias hasta. Ovid. Lauras Parru'isls. Id. Ursa LiSystis. Virg. Cf. also 
$ 129, 8. 

(b.) An adverb is also sometimes used as an adjective; as, Neque enim 
igndri siimus ante mdlorum; i. e. antlquorum or praterltorum. Virg. Nunc 
hOminum mores. Plaut. 



188 SYNTAX. — ADJECTIVES. § 205. 

Eem. 12. (a.) An adjective or adjective pronoun, used partitively, stands 
alone, and commonly takes the gender of the genitive plural, which depends 
upon it; hut when it is preceded by a noun of a different gender, to which it 
refers, it usually takes that gender, but sometimes that of the genitive; as, 
Elephanto belludrum nulla est prudenlior, No beast is wiser than the elephant. 
Cic. Indus, qui est omnium fluminum maximus. Cic. Veldcissimum omnium 
animdlium est delpliinus. Plin. See § 212, Rem. 2. — (b.) So also with de, ex, in, 
dpud, inter, etc., with the ablative or accusative instead of the partitive geni- 
tive. See § 212, R. 2, N. 4. 

(c.) When a collective noun follows in the genitive singular, (§ 212, R. 2.) the 
adjective takes the gender of the individuals which compose it; as, Vir for- 
tissimus nostrce civildtis, The bravest man of our state. Cic. Maximus stirpis. 
Liv. 

Rem. 13. (a.) When a possessive pronoun or adjective is used instead of the 
genitive of its primitive or of its corresponding noun (see § 211, R. 3, (b.) and 
(c.) and R. 4), an adjective agreeing with that genitive is sometimes joined 
with such possessive ; as, Sdlius meum peccdtum corrigi non potest, The fault 
of me alone cannot be corrected. Cic. Noster duorum eventus. Liv. Tuum 
ipsius stadium. Cic. Pugna Romana stdbilis suo pondere incumbentium in hos- 
tem. Liv. 

(b.) Sometimes a noun in the genitive is expressed, in apposition to the sub- 
stantive pronoun for which the possessive stands ; as, Pectus tuum, hdmlnis 
simplicis. Cic. 

Rem. 14. An adjective, properly belonging to the genitive, is sometimes 
made to agree with the noun on which the genitive depends, and vice versa. ; 
as, JEdificdtidnis tuae consilium for tuum, Your design of building. Cic. Accu- 
santes violati hospitii fosdus, for vidldtum. Liv. Ad majora initio, rerum ducentibus 
fdtis, for mdjdrum. Id. lis ndminibus civitdtum, quibus ex civitdtibus, etc., for 
edrum civitdtum. Cses. 

Rem. 15. (a.) An adjective agreeing with a noun is sometimes used, instead 
of an adverb qualifying a verb, especially in poetry; as, Ecce venit Teldmon 
properus, Lo, Telamon comes in haste. Ovid. Laeti pdcem dgitdbdmus, for Icete. 
Sail. jEneas se matutinus dgebat, for mane. Virg. Nee lupus gregibus uoctur- 
nus dbambulat, i. e. by night. Id. 

(6.) So nullus is used for non; as, Memini idmetsi nullus mdneas, Though 
you do not suggest it. Ter. Sextus ab armis nullus discedit. Cic. Priar, pri- 
mus, princeps, prdpior, proximus, solus, unus, ultimus, nndtus, totus, and some 
others, are used instead of their neuters, adverbially; as, Priori Remo augurium 
venisse fertur. Liv. Hispdnia postrema omnium prdvincidrum perdOmita 'est. 
Liv. Scaivola solos ndvem menses Asiai praifuit, Only nine months. Cic. Unum 
hoc dico, This only I say. Id. This is sometimes done, for want of an ad- 
verb of appropriate meaning; as, PrSnus cecidit. Ovid. Frequentes convene- 
rant. Sail. 

(c.) In such expressions, iu, in the nominative, sometimes takes an adjec- 
tive in the vocative, and vice versa ; as, Sic venias hodierne. Tibull. Salve, 
primus omnium parens patrice appellate. Plin. 

Rem. 16. (a.) A noun is often qualified by two or more adjectives; and 
sometimes the complex idea, formed by a noun with one or more adjectives, is 
itself qualified by other adjectives, which agree in gender, etc. with the noun. 

(6.) When several adjectives, each independently of the other, qualify a 
noun, if they precede it, they are almost always connected by one or more con- 
junctions ; as, Multd et vdrid et cdpidsd ordtione. Cic. If they follow it, the 
conjunction is sometimes expressed, and sometimes omitted; as, Vir alius et 
excellens. Cic. Actio, vdria, vehemens, plena veritdtis. Id. 

(c.) But when one of the adjectives qualifies the noun, and another the 
complex idea formed by the first with the noun, the conjunction is always 
omitted; as, Periciilosissimum civile betbum, A most dangerous civil war. Cic. 
Malam ddmesticam disciplinam. Id. So with three or more adjectives; Externos 
multos cldros viros ndmindrem. Cic. Cf. § 202, III., R. 1. 



§ 206. SYNTAX. PRONOUNS — RELATIVES. 189 

Rem. 17. The first part, last part, middle part, etc., of any place 
or time are generally expressed in Latin by the adjectives primus, 
medius, ullimus, extremus, intimus, infimus, Imus, summus, supremus, 
reliquus, and cetera ; as, 

Media nox, The middle of the night. Summa arbor, The top of a tree. 
Supremos mantes, The summits of the mountains. But these adjectives fre- 
quently occur -without this signification ; as, Ab extremo complexu, From the 
last embrace. Cic. Infimo Idco natus, Of the lowest rank. Id. 

Rem. 18. The participle of the compound tenses of verbs, used impersonally 
in the passive voice, is neuter; as, Ventum est. Cic. Itum est in viscera terras. 
Ovid. Scribendum est mild. See § 184, 2 and 3. 

RELATIVE S. 

§ 206. Rem. 19. (a.) Relatives agree with their antece- 
dents in gender, number, and person, but their case depends on 
the construction of the clause to which they belong ; as, 

Puer qui legit, The boy who reads. JEdificium quod exstruxit, The house 
which he built. Literoz quas dedi, The letter which I gave. Non sum qualis 
eram, I am not such as I was. Hor. So Deus cujus munere vivimus, cui nullus 
est similis, quem cdlimus, a quo facta sunt omnia, est aiternus. Addictus Her- 
mippo, et ab hoc ductus est. Aquih, quantus frangit ilices. Hor. 

Note 1. This rule includes all adjectives and adjective pronouns which re- 
late to a noun in a preceding clause. Its more common application, however, 
is to the construction of the demonstrative pronouns and the relative qui. 

Note 2. When a pronoun refers to the mere words of a sentence, it is said to 
be used logically. Qui and is are so used, and sometimes also hie and ille. 

(b.) The relative may be considered as placed between two cases 
of the same noun, either expressed or understood, with the former of 
which it agrees in gender, number, and person, and with the latter in 
gender, number, and case. 

(1.) Sometimes both nouns are expressed; as, 

Evant omnino duo itinera, quibus Itineribus d6mo exire possent, There were 
only two routes, by which routes thev could leave home. Ca^s. Crudelissimo 
bello, quale belluin nulla umquam barhdria gessit. Cic. But it is most frequent 
with the word dies; as, Fdre in armis certo die, qui dies futurus erat, etc. Cic. 
The repetition of the substantive is necessary, when, for any reason, it becomes 
doubtful to which of two or more preceding substantives the relative refers. 

(2.) Usually the antecedent noun only is expressed ; as, 
Animum rege, qui, nisi paret, imperat, Govern your passions, which rule, 
unless they obey. Hor. Taatke multitudinis, quantam enpit urbs nostra, con- 
cursus est ad me /actus. Cic. Quot cdpitum vlvunt, idtidem studiorum millia. 
Hor. 

(3.) Sometimes the latter noun only is expressed, especially when 
the relative clause, as is frequently the case, precedes that of the an- 
tecedent; as, 

Quibus de rebus ad me scripsisti, coram videbimus ; scil. de rebus, In regard to 
the things of which you wrote to me, we will consider when we meet. Cic. 
In quem pr'onum egressi sunt locum, Troja vdedtur ; scil, Idcus. Liv. Quanta 
vi expetunt, tanta. defendunt. Qualesgue vlsus eram vidisse vlros, ex ordine tales 
aspicio. Ovid. 



190 SYNTAX. — PRONOUNS — RELATIVES. § 206. 

(a.) The place of the antecedent is sometimes supplied by a demonstrative 
pronoun ; as, Ad quas res aptissimi erimus, in iis pdtissimum eldbdrdbimus. Cic. 
But the demonstrative is often omitted when its case is the same as that of the 
relative, and not unfrequently, also, when the cases are different. When the 
relative clause precedes that of the antecedent, is is expressed only for the sake 
of emphasis. Hence we find such sentences as, Maximum orndmentum dmlci- 
tice tollit, qui ex ed tollit verecundiam. Cic. Terra quod accepit, numquam sine 
usurd reddit. Id. — The demonstrative adjectives and adverbs are in like manner 
often omitted before their corresponding relatives ; talis before qudlis, tantus be- 
fore quantus, inde before unde, ibi before ubi, etc. ■ ■ 

(b.) Sometimes the latter noun only is expressed, even when the relative 
clause does not precede ; as, Quis non mdldrum quas amor curas hdbet, hate inter 
obliviscitur ? Hor. 

(4.) Sometimes neither noun is expressed ; this happens especially 
when the antecedent is designedly left indefinite, or when it is a sub- 
stantive pronoun ; as, 

Qui bene latuit, bene vixit, scil. hdmo, (He) who has well escaped notice, has 
lived well. Ovid. Sunt quos currlculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse jiivat, 
scil. hdmines, There are whom it delights, i. e. Some delight. Hor. Non hdbeo 
quod te accusem, scil. id propter quod. Cic. Non solum sapiens videris, qui hinc 
absis, sed etiam bedtus, scil. tu. Cic. 

(5.) The relative is sometimes either entirely omitted; as, Vrbs antlqua fuit; 
Tyrii tenuere coldni, scil. quam or earn, There was an ancient city (which) 
Tyrian colonists possessed, Virg. ; or, if once expressed, is afterwards omitted, 
even when, if supplied, its case would be different ; as, Bocchus cum peditibus, 
quos fllius ejus adduxerat, neque in priore pugnd adfuerant, Romdnos invddunt, 
for et qui non in priore, etc. Sail. 

(6.) (a.) The relative sometimes takes the case of the antecedent, instead of 
its own proper case ; as, Quum scribas et dliquid dgas edrum, qu5rum consuesti, 
for qua. Cic. Raptim quibus quisque pdterat eldtis, exibant, for iis, quae, quisque 
efferre pdterat, eldtis. Liv. 

(b.) The antecedent likewise sometimes takes the case of the relative, the 
substantive either preceding or following the pronoun; as, Urbem quam statuo 
vestra est, for urbs. Virg. Eunuchuin quern dedisti nobis, quas turbas dedit ! for 
Eunuchus. Ter. Naucratem quern convenlre vdlui, in ndvi non erat. Plaut. 
Atque alii, quorum cdmozdia prisca virorum est, for atque alii viri, quorum est. 
Hor. llli, scripta quibus comaidia prisca viris est, for itli viri, quibus. Id. Quos 
pueros miseram, epistdlam mihi attulerunt. Cic. 

These constructions are said to occur by attraction. 

(7.) (a.) An adjective, which properly belongs to the antecedent, is some- 
times placed in the relative clause, and agrees with the relative; as, Inter 
jdcos, quos inconditos jdciunt, for jdcos inconditos, quos, etc. Amidst the rude 
jests which thej^ utter. Liv. Verbis, quae magna vdlant. Virg. Colore, quern 
multum hdbet. Cic. 

(b.) This is the common position of the adjective, when it is a numeral, a 
comparative, or a superlative ; as, Node quam in terris ultimam egit, The last 
night which he spent upon earth. jEsculdpius, qui primus vulnus obligdvisse 
dicitur. Cic. Consiliis pare, qua? nunc pulcherrima Nautes dat senior, Listen to 
the excellent advice, which, etc. Virg. Some instances occur in which an 
adjective belonging to the relative clause, is placed in that of the antecedent; 
as, Quum venissent ad vuda Volaterrana, quas nominantur, Which are called 
Vohiterran. Cic. 

(8.) When to the relative or demonstrative is joined a noun ex- 
planatory of its antecedent, but of a different gender or number, the 
relative or demonstrative usually agrees with that noun ; as, 



§ 206. SYNTAX.— PRONOUNS — RELATIVES. 191 

Santones non longe a Tdlosdtium finibus absunt, quae civltas est in prdvincid, 
The Santones are not far distant from the borders of the Tolosates, which 
state is in the province. Cses. Ante comitia, quod tempus hand lonye dberat. 
Sail. Ronue Jdnum Diana, pdjmli Ldtini cum populo Romano fecerunt : ea erai 
confessio caput rcram Rornam esse; i. e. that thing or that act. Liy. Si omnia 
fdcienda sunt, qua dmtci velint, non dmicitice tales, sed conjurationes putandm 
stmt; i. e. such things or such connections. Cic. So, Ista quidem vis, Surely 
this is force. Ea ipsa causa belli fuit, for id ipsum. Hither also may be refer- 
red such explanatory sentences as, Qui meus amor in te est, Such is my love 
for you. Cic. 

(9.) If the relative refers to one of two nouns, denoting the same 
object, but of different genders/it agrees with either ; as, 

F lumen est Arar quod in Rhdddnum influit. Cses. Ad jiumen Oxum perventxan 
est, qui turbidus semp)er est. Curt. 

(10.) "When, in a relative clause containing the verb sum or a verb 
of naming, esteeming, etc., a predicate-noun occurs of a different 
gender from the antecedent, the relative commonly agrees with the 
latter ; but when the preceding noun is to be explained and distin- 
guished from another, the relative agrees with the former ; as, 

Ndturce vultus quem dixere Chaos, The appearance of nature which they 
called chaos. Ovid. Genus hominum quod Hilotes vdcdtur. Nep. Animal, 
quem vocdmus hominem, The animal whom we call man. Cic. Locus in car- 
cere, quod Tullianum appelldtur. Sail. Pecunidrum conqulsltio; eos esse belli 
civ'dis nervos dictitans Mucidnus. Tac. 

(11.) The relative sometimes agrees with a noun, either equiva- 
lent in sense to the antecedent, or only implied in the preceding 
clause ; as, 

Abundantia edrum rerum, quae mortdles prima pulant, An abundance of those 
things, which mortals esteem most important. Sail. Cf. § 205, E. 7, (2.) N. 1. 
But sometimes Avhen a neuter adjective used substantively has preceded, res 
with a relative follows; as, Permulta sunt, qua did possunt, qua re intelligdtur. 
Cic. Futdlt monstrum, quae, etc., scil. Cleopatra. Hor. Cf. § 323, 3, (4.) 

(a.) A relative or demonstrative pronoun, referring to a collective noun, or 
to a noun which only in a figurative sense denotes a human being, sometimes 
takes the gender and number of the individuals which the noun implies; as, 
L'ptitdtum, quos. Sail. Genus, qui premuntur. Cic. Sendtus — ii. Sail. 

{b.) A pronoun in the plural often follows a noun in the singular, referring 
not only to the noun but to the class of persons or things to which it belongs ; 
a-. Demdcrttum omittdmus ; nihil est enim dpud istos, quod, etc. i. e. with Demo- 
critus and his followers. Cic. Dlonysius negdvit sejure illo nigro quod coznce 
caput erat, delectation. Turn is, qui ilia coxerat, etc. Id. 

(12.) The antecedent is sometimes implied in a possessive pronoun; as, 
'nines lauddre fortunas meas, qui ndtum tali ingenio prceditvm hdberem; scil. 
mei, All were extolling my fortune, who, etc. Ter. Id mea minime refert, qui 
sum ndtu m'lximus. Id. Nostrum consilium laudandum est, qui ndluerim, etc. Cic. ; 
or in a possessive adjective; as, Servili tumullu, quos, etc. Caes. 

(13.) (a.) Sometimes the antecedent is a proposition; the relative then is 
commonly neuter; as, Postremo, quod difficillimum inter mortdles, gloria in- 
vidiam v'uisti, Finally, you have overcome envy with glory, which, among men, 
is most difficult. Sail. Equidem exspectdbam jam tuas litiras, idque cum multis. 
Cic. 

(6.) In such instances, id is generally placed before the relative pronoun, 
refering to the idea in the antecedent clause; as, Sive, id quod constat, Pldtdnis 
studiosus audiendi fuit. Cic. JJiem consumi volebant, id quod fecerunt. Id. 

(c.) Sometimes is, referring to a clause, agrees with a noun following; as, 
Idem velle atque idem nolle, ea demum jirma dmicitia est. Sail. 



192 SYNTAX. PRONOUNS RELATIVES. § 206. 

(14.) Quod, relating to a preceding statement, and serving the purpose of 
transition, is often placed at the beginning of a sentence after a period, where 
it may be translated by ' nay,' ' now,' or ' and.' It is thus used especially be- 
fore si } etsi, and nisi ; as, Quodsi Mine indnis prqfugisses, tamen ista tua fuga 
nefdna judicdretur, i. e. and even if you had fled without taking any thing 
with you, still, etc. Cic. Verr. 1, 14. "Quodsi, ' if then,' is especially used in in- 
troducing something assumed as true, from which further inferences may be 
drawn. Sometimes also it is equivalent to ' although.' Quodnisi signifies ' if 
then — not ' ; as, Quodnisi ego meo adventu illius condtus dliquantulum repressis- 
sem, tarn multos, etc. Quodetsi is ' nay, even if ; as, Quddetd ingeniis magnis 
prasditi quidam dlcendi copiam sine rdtione consequentur, ars tamen est dux cer- 
tior. — Quod is found also before quum, ubi, quia, quoniam, ne and utinam, where 
the conjunction alone would seem to be sufficient; as, Quod utinam ilium, cujus 
impio fdcinore in has miserias projectus sum, eddem haic simulantem videam. Sail. 
It is so used even before a relative in Cic. Phil. 10, 4, Jin. — Quod, in such ex- 
amples, seems to be an accusative, with propter or ad understood. 

(15.) (a.) A relative is always plural, when referring to two or more nouns 
in the singular. If the nouns are of different genders, the gender of the relative 
is determined by Rem. 2, page 185; as, Ninus et Semlrdmis, qui Bdbylona condi- 
deranl, Ninus and Semiramis, who had founded Babylon. Veil. Crebro fundli 
et tlblcine, qua? sibi sumpserat. Cic. Ex summd laititia atque lascicid, quae diu- 
turna quies pepererat. Sail. Naves et captlvos quas ad Chium capta erant. Liv. 

(b.) If the antecedents are of different persons, the relative follows the first 
person rather than the second or third, and the second rather than the third; 
as, Tu et- pater, qui in convivio erdtis. Ego et tu, quieramus. Cf. § 209, R. 12, (7.) 

(16.) The relative adjectives quot, quantus, qualis, are construed like the 
relative qui. They have generally, in the antecedent clause, the corresponding 
demonstrative words, tot, tantus, talis ; but these are also often omitted. Fre- 
quently also the order of the clauses is reversed, so that the relative clause 
precedes the demonstrative. 

(17.) Qui, at the beginning of a sentence, is often translated like a demon- 
strative; as, Quae quum ita sint, Since these (things) are so. Cic. 

(18.) The relative qui with sum and either a nominative or the ablative of 
quality, is used in explanatory clauses, instead of pro, 'in accordance with,' 
or ' according to ' ; thus, instead of Tu, pro tud prudentid, quid optimum factu 
sit, videbis. Cic, we may say, quce tua est prudeniia, or, qua prudentid es. So, 
Velis tantummddo, qua? tua virtus, expugnabis. Hor. Qua prudentia es, nihil te 
fiigicl. Cic. 

(19.) A relative clause is sometimes used for the purpose of denoting by 
circumlocution the person of the agent in a definite but not permanent con- 
dition ; as, li, qui audiunt, or qui adsunt, i. e. the hearers, the persons present. 
So, also, a relative clause is used for the English expression 'above men- 
tioned'; as, Ex libris quos dixi or quos ante (siqjra) lauddvi: and the English 
' so called,' or ' what is called,' is expressed by quern, quam, quod vdcant, or by 
qui, quai, quod vdedtur, dlcitur, etc. ; as, Nee "Hermas hos, quos vdcant, imponi 
(Alhenis) ticebat. Cic. Vestra, quai dlcitur, vita, mors est. Id. 

(20.) Relative and demonstrative adverbs (see § 191, R. 1), are frequently 
used instead of relative and demonstrative pronouns with prepositions ; as, Is, 
unde te audisse dicis, i. e. a quo. Cic. Divitiai dpud illos sunt, aut ubi Mi vdlunt, 
i. e. dpud quos. Sail. Huic ab ddolescenlid bella intestina, caides, rapinai, dis~ 
cordia civilis, grata fuere, ibique juventutem exercuit, i. e. in Us, in these things. 
Sail. 

(21.) With quam qui and the superlative after tarn the verb of the relative 
clause is sometimes omitted ; as, Tarn miJii grdtum id erit, quam quod grdtissi- 
mum. Cic. Tain enim sum amicus reipublica;, quam qui maxime. Id. Tarn sum 
mlds, quam qui lenissimus. Id. So also with ut qui without tarn; as, Te semper 
sic colam et luebor, ut quern diligentissime. Id. 



§ 207. SYNTAX. PRONOUNS DEMONSTRATIVES. 193 

D EMONSTRATIVE S. 

§ 5$©7» Rem. 20. The oblique cases, of the personal pronoun of the 
third person (him, her, etc.) are commonly expressed in prose by the oblique 
cases of is, ea, id. Hie and ilk, however, being more emphatic, take the place 
of is, ea, id, in lyric poetry, and occasionally in prose also, when particular 
emphasis is intended. The cases of ipse, ipsa, ipsum, also, are employed for 
this purpose, when the individuality of the person is to be distinctly expressed. 
In reflexive sentences, the oblique cases of the pronoun of the third person, are 
regularly supplied by sui, sibi, se ; and it is only when the person of the lead- 
ing subject is to be referred to with particular emphasis, that ipse is used in- 
stead of sui. 

Rem. 21. The demonstrative pronouns, is and ille, are sometimes used, espe- 
cially with quidem, where a corresponding, word in English is unnecessary; 
a<. SapienticB studium vetus id quidem in nostris, sed tdmen, etc. Cic. hominem 
semper ilium quidem mihi aptum, nunc vero etiam sudvem. Id. Quern neque fides, 
neque jusjurandum, neque ilium misericordia, repressit, Whom neither fidelity, 
nor an oath, nor pity, has restrained. Ter. Is when used for the sake of em- 
phasis seems sometimes in English to be superfluous; as, Male se res hdbet, 
quum, quod virtute effici debet, id tentdtur pecunid. Cic. 

Rem. 22. Sic, it a, id, hoc, illud, are often used redundantly as a preliminary 
announcement of a stibsequent proposition, and are added to the verb on which 
this proposition depends; as, Sic a mdjoribus suis acceperant, tanta populi Rd- 
m h/i esse benrficia, ut, etc. Cic. Te illud admoneo, ut quotidie meditere, resist- 
endum esse irdcundiai. Id. Hoc tibi persuddeas velim, me nihil omisisse, I wish 
you to be persuaded of this — that I have omitted nothing. These pleonastic 
additions have generally no influence on the construction of propositions, but 
in a few instances they are followed by ut; as, Be cujus dicendi copid sic accepi- 
www, ut, etc. Cic. Ita ,enim def 'init, ut perturbdtio sit, etc. Id. In the phrase hoc, 
ill ad, or id age re ut, the pronoun is established by custom and is necessary. 
See § 273, 1, (a.) 

Rem. 23. (a.) Hie 'this ' refers to what is near to the speaker either in place 
or time, ille 'that' to what is more remote. Hence hie sometimes refers to the 
speaker himself, and hie homo is then the same as ego. On this account hie is 
sometimes called the demonstrative of the first person. When reference is 
made to two things previously mentioned, hie commonly refers to the latter, 
ille to the former, and the pronouns are arranged in the same order, as the ob- 
jects to which they relate; as, Igndvia coipus hebetat, labor Jirmat; ilia mdturam 
8<hu ctutem, hie longam addle scentiam reddit, Sloth enervates the body, labor 
strengthens it; the former produces premature old age, the latter protracted 
youth. Cels. 

(b.) But the order is often reversed, so that hie refers to the object first men- 
tioned, and ille to the one mentioned last; as, Sic deus et virgo est; hie spe celer, 
ilia timore. Ovid. So when alter...alter, ' the one.. .the other,' refer to two things 
mentioned before, the previous order is sometimes observed and sometimes re- 
versed ; but wherever there is ambiguity the order is reversed, so that the first 
alter refers to the last object. Sometimes hic.hic are used instead of hic.ille. 
So ille. ..ille sometimes denote 'the one. ..the other.' 

(c.) Hie and ille have the same relation to time present and past as nunc and 
tunc, see § 277 ; and hence whatever, in speaking of present time, is expressed 
by hie and its derivative adverbs, hie, hinc, hue, and adhuc, is expressed by ille, 
and its derivatives, when it is spoken of as belonging to past time. 

Rem. 24. Ille, when not in opposition to hie, is often used to denote that 
which is of general notoriety; as, Magno illi Alexandro simillimus, Very like 
Alexander the Great. Veil. Medea ilia, The celebrated Medea. Cic. Hence 
ille is sometimes added to other pronouns, to refer to something discussed be- 
fore ; as, Avebant visere, aids ille tot per annos dpes nostras sprevisset. Tac. Ille 
is sometimes translated this ; as, Unum illud dlco, This only I say. Cic. Ille 
17 



194 SYNTAX. PRONOUNS DEMONSTRATIVES. § 207. 

sometimes marks a change of persons, and may then be translated ' the other ' ; 
as, Vercingetorix obviam Ccesari prdficiscitur. Ille (scil. Ccesar) oppidum Novio- 
dunum oppugndre instituerat. Cses. 

Rem. 25. Is t e properly l-efers to the person addressed, and for this reason is 
called the demonstrative of the second person. — llle refers to the person spoken 
of, and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person. Thus iste liber is 
thy book, but ille liber is the book of which we are speaking. Hence, in let- 
ters, hie and its derivatives are used of the writer ; iste and its derivatives of the 
person addressed ; ille, etc., of some other person or thing. See §191, R. l,(e.) 
Iste from its frequent forensic use, and its application to the opponent, often 
denotes contempt. 

Rem. 26. (a.) Js does not, like hie, ille, and isle, denote the place or order of 
the object to which it relates, but either refers without particular emphasis to 
something already mentioned or to something which is to be defined by the 
relative qui. Hie, is, or ille, may be used in this way before the relative, but 
only hie or is after it ; as, Qui ddcet, is discit, or hie discit, but not ille diseit, un- 
less some individual is referred to. 

(b.) Is before a relative or ut has sometimes the sense of talis, such, denoting 
a class ; as, Neque enim tu is es, qui quid sis nescias, Nor are you such a person, 
as not to know what you are. Cic. ; sometimes it has the force of idem ; as, vos 
— ii. Cic. Manil. 12. 

(c.) If the noun to which is refers is to receive some additional predicate, 
we must use et is, atque is, isque, et is quidem, and with a negative nee is ; as, 
Vincula vero, et ea sempiterna, etc. Cic. Una in domo, et ea quidem angusta, 
etc. Id. Adolescentes aliquot, nee ii tenui loco orti, etc. Liv. Sed is is used 
when the additional predicate is opposed to the preceding ; as, Seyeril&tem in 
senectute jwobo, sed earn, sicut alia, modicam. Cic. The neuter et id, or idque, 
serves to introduce an addition to the preceding proposition; as, Quamquam te, 
Marce fili, annum jam audientem Cratippum, idque Athenis, etc. 

(d.) is is not expressed when it would be in the same oblique case as the 
preceding noun to which it refers ; as, Pater dmat liberos et tdmen castlgat. 
Multos illustrat fortuna, dum vexat. 

(e.) When in English 'that' or 'those 1 is used instead of the repetition of 
the preceding substantive, is is never used in Latin, and ille only in later au- 
thors. In such cases the noun-is commonly not repeated in Latin, and no pro- 
noun is used in its place ; as, Philippus hostium manus sape vitdvii, subrum ejfcu- 
gere non vdluit, those of his own subjects. Curt. Sometimes the substantive is 
repeated; as, Judicia civitdtis cum judiciis principis certant. Veil. Sometimes 
a possessive adjective is used instead of the genitive depending on the omitted 
substantive; as, Terentii fabulas studibse lego, Plautlnis minus detector : and 
sometimes instead of the genitive or a possessive adjective the name of the per- 
son itself is put in the case which the verb governs; as, Si cum Ljcnrgo et 
Dracone et Solone nostras leges conferre volueritis. Cic. — In Cicero hie and ille, 
when the preceding substantive is understood, retain their demonstrative sig- 
nification, and therefore do not merely supply the place of the omitted sub- 
stantive ; as, Nullum enim. virtus dliam mercedem desiderat, prater hanc, i. e. the 
one of which I am speaking. Cic. 

Rem. 27. (a.) Idem, as denoting a subject which stands in equal relations to 
two different predicates, often supplies the place of item or etiam, ' also,' ' at the 
same time,' or of tdmen, 'yet,' if the things are apparently inconsistent; as, 
Musici, qui erant quondam iidem poetce, Musicians, who formerly were poets 
also. Cic. Euphrates et Tigris magno dqudrum divortio iter percurrunt; iidem. 
(and yet) pauldtim in arctius coeunt. 

(b.) Etipse, on the other hand, denotes that the same predicate belongs to 
two subjects. It is rendered by ' too ' or ' also ' ; as, Antoninus Commddus nihil 
pdternum hdbuit, nisi quod contra Germanos feliciter et ipse pugndxit, for item 
or ipse qudque. Eutr. — So, also, nee ipse is used in the sense ot ' neither ' ; as, 
Prlmis rcpulsis Maharbal cum mdjore robdre virdrum missus nee ipse eruptidnum 
cuhorlium suslinuit. Liv. 



§ 207. SYNTAX. — PRONOUNS INTENSIVE, ETC. 195 

(c.) Idem is sometimes repeated in the sense of ' at once,' denoting the nnion 
of qualities which might be thought incompatible ; as, Fucre quidam qui ildcm 
on-ndte iidem versute mcerent, There have been some who could speak at once 
elegantly and artfully. Cic. 

(t/.) 'The same as ' is variously expressed in Latin, by idem with qui, ac or 
atque, quam, quasi, ut or cum; as," Verves Idem est qui fuit semper, Verres is the 
same as he has always been. Cic. Vita est eadem ac fuit. Liv. Disputdtidnem 
exponimus iisdem fere verbis ut actum est. Cic. Eandem constituit potestdtem 
quam si, etc. Cic. Eodem Idco res est, quasi ea petunia legdta non esset. Id. 
Hum- eqo eodem me cum paire genitum, etc. So also poetically with the dative; 
as, Eadem aliis sopitu 1 quiete est. Lucr. Cf. § 222, R. 7. 

IPSE, Intensive or Adjunctive. 

Rem. 28. (a.) Ipse, when used with a substantive pronoun taken reflexively, 
agrees either with such pronoun or with the subject of the proposition, accord- 
ing as either is emphatic ; as, Again j)er me ipse, I will do it myself. Cic. Non 
egeo medicind (i. e. ut alii me consolentur) ; me ipse consolor. Cic. Accusando 
eum, a cujus crudPlitdte vosmet ipsi armis rindicastis. Liv. — Cn. Pompeium omni- 
bus, Lentulttm mihi ipsi antepono. Cic. Fac ut te ipsum custodias. Id. Deforme 
est de se ipsum pr&dicdre. Id. — But Cicero often construes ipse as the subject, 
even where the emphasis belongs to the object; as, Quid est negotii continere 
eos, quibus pr&sis, si te ipse contineas t 

(b.) When ipse is joined with a possessive pronoun used reflexively, it usually 
takes the case of the subject; as, Meam ipse legem negligo; not meam ipsius, 
according to § 211, R. 3, (a). So, Si ex scmptis cognosci ipsi suis pdtuissent. Cic. 
Earn fraudem vestrd ipsi virtute vitastis. Liv. But the genitive is necessary when 
the possessive does not refer to the subject; as, Tud ipsius causa hoc feci. And 
it is sometimes found where the case of the subject should be used; as, Conjec- 
turam de tuo ipsius studio ceperis, instead of ipse.— ^(c.) Ipse is sometimes used 
as reflexive without sui ; as, Omnes bdni, quantum in ipsis fuit, Cxsdrem occlde- 
runi. Cic. 

(d.) Ipse, with nouns denoting time or number, expresses exactness, and 
may be rendered, 'just,' 'precisely'; or 'very,' 'only'; as, Dyrrhdchio sum 
prdfectus ipso illo die, quo lex est data de nobis, on the very day. Cic. Trlginta 
dies erant ipsi, quum has ddbam litems, per quos nullas a vdbis acceperam, just 
thirty days. Id. Et quisquam dubitdbit — quam facile imperio atque exercilu 
socios et vectigdlia conservdturus sit, qui ipso nomine ac rumore defenderit, by his 
very name, or, by his name only. Id. 

General Relatives. 

Rem. 29. Qulcumque,quisquis, and the other general relatives (see§ 139,5, 
R., are, in classical prose, always connected with a verb, and form the protasis. 
Quicumque is commonly used as an adjective, and quisquis as a substantive ; 
but the neuter quodcumque is used as a substantive with a following genitive; 
as, Quodcumque mllitum ; and, on the other hand, quisqtiis is rarely an adjec- 
tive; as, Quisquis erit tv/ce color. Hor. ; and even the neuter quidquid is used in 
the same manner ; as, Quisquis hdnos tumuli, quidquid soldinenhumandi est. Virg. 
Quicumque seems sometimes even in Cicero equivalent to omnis or quivis ; as, 
Qua, sdndri pdterunt, quacumque rdtidne sdndbo, What can be cured, I will cure 
by every possible means. Cic. Yet possum- is rather to be supplied; — *in 
whatever way I can.' But in later writers quicumque is frequently used in the 
absolute sense' for quivis or quilibet ; as, Cictrdnem cuicumque eorum fortiter 
oppdsuerim. Quint. Qudliscumque and quankiscumque are likewise used in an 
absolute sense by ellipsis; as, Tu non conciipisces quanticumque ad Itbertd t em 
pervenire f At any price, be it ever so high. Sen. So quisquis is occasionally 
used, not as a relative, but as an indefinite pronoun. — Siquis often seems to 
stand as a relative, like the Greek urte for fane, ' whoever ' ; but it always 
contains the idea of ' perhaps ' ; as, Nuda fere Alpium edeumina sunt, et si quid 
est pdbuli, obruunt nives. Liv. 



196 SYNTAX. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. § 207. 

Indefinite Pronouns. 

Rem. 30. (a.) Aliquis and quispiam are particular and affirmative, corres- 
ponding to the English some one ; as, Hereditas est pecunia, quce morte alicujus 
ad quempiam pervSnit jure, An inheritance is property which, at the death of 
some one, falls to some (other) one by law. Cic. Multi sine doctrina aliquid 
omnium generum el artium cons^quuntur. Id. 

(b.) Aliquis is more emphatic than the indefinite pronoun quis. (See § 137, (3.) 
Hence aliquis stands by itself, but quis is commonly connected with certain 
conjunctions or relative words, but these are sometimes separated from it by 
one or more words. Sometimes, however, quis is used without such conjunc- 
tions or relatives; as, Morbus out egestas aut quid ejusmOdi. Cic. Detrahere 
quid de aliquo. Id. Injuriam cui facere. Id. So, Dixerit quis, Some one might 
say. But even after those conjunctions which usually require quis, aliquis is 
used when employed antithetically and of course emphatically ; as, Timebat 
Pompeius omnia, ne allquid vos timeretis. Cic. In English the emphasis of aliquis 
is sometimes expressed by ' really ' ; as, Sensus mOAendi, si aliquis esse potest, is 
ad exiguum tempus durat. Cic. — Quispiam, also, is sometimes used like quis 
after si, etc., and sometimes stands alone; as, Quceret fortasse quispiam. 

Rem. 31. (a.) Quis quam, 'any one,' andwZZ«s,'any,' are universal. Likewm- 
quam and usquam they are used in propositions which involve a universal nega- 
tive, or which express an interrogation with a negative force, or a condition 
(usually with si or quasi) ; also, after comparatives, after the adverb vix, and 
the preposition sine ; as, Neque ex castris CdlilincB quisquam omnium discesserat, 
Nor had any one departed from the camp of Catiline. Sail. Nee ullo casu po- 
test contingere, ut ulla iniermissio fiat officii. Cic. An quisquam pOtest sine per- 
turbdtidne mentis irasci ? Id. Tetrior Mc tyrannus Syrdcusdnis Juit, quam quis- 
quam superiorum. Id. Vix quidquam spei est. Sen. But after the dependent 
negative particles ne, neve, and the negative interrogative particle num, quis and 
not quisquam is used. 

(b.) But quisquam and ullus after si are often used not in a negative sense, 
but instead of aliquis or quis, serving only to increase the indefiniteness which 
would be implied in the latter pronouns ; as, Aut enim nemo, quod quidem mdgis 
credo, aut, si quisquam, Me sapiens fuit, if any man. Cic. Hence, ultimately, 
even without si, where the indefiniteness is to be made emphatic, quisquam, 
ullus, umquam and usquam were used; as, Quamdiu quisquam erit, qui te de~ 
fendere audeat, vives. Cic. Bellum maxime omnium memdrdbile, quce umquam 
gesta sunt, scripturus sum. Tac. 

(c.) Ullus is properly an adjective, but quisquam is commonly used without 
a noun, except it is a word denoting a person; as, Cuiquam chi, "To any citizen. 
Cujusquam ordtoris eldquentiam. Hence quisquam corresponds to the substan- 
tive nemo and ullus to the adjective nullus. Nemo is often used with other 
substantives denoting male persons so as to become equivalent to the adjective 
nullus ; as, nemo pictor, nemo dddlescens, and even homo nemo. Cic. Quisquam 
is sometimes used in a similar manner; as, quisquam hdmo, quisquam cnis. On 
the other hand nullus and ullus are .used as substantives instead of nemo and 
quisquam, especially the genitive nullius and the ablative nullo. 

Rem. 32. (a.) Alius, like ullus, though properly an adjective, is sometimes 
used like a pronoun. It is often repeated, or joined with an adverb derived 
from it, in the same proposition, which may be translated by two separate 
propositions, commencing respectively with 'one. ..another'; as, Aliud aliis 
videtur optimum, One thing seems best to one, another to another. Cic. Aliis 
aliunde periaUum est, Danger threatens one from one source, another from 
another; or, Danger threatens diffei-ent persons from different sources. Ter. 
Didnysium aliter cum aliis de nobis Idcutum audiebam. Cic. — Alter is used in the 
same manner when only two persons are spoken of, but there are no adverbs de- 
rived from it ; as, Alter in alteram causam conferunt, They accuse each other. 

(b.) Alius, repeated in different propositions, is also translated ' one. ..another ' ; 
as, Aliud dgitur, aliud siinuldlur, One thing is done, another pretended. Cic. 
Aliter loquitur, aliter scribit, like aliter ac or atque, He speaks otherwise than 
he writes. So Aliud loquitur, aliud scribit. 



M 



§ 207. SYNTAX. — POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 197 

(c.) Uterque, 'eachof two,' is always used by Cicero in the singular num- 
ber, when only two individuals are spoken of. Its plural, utrique, is used only 
when each of two parties consists of several individuals; as, Mdcedones — Tyrii, 
utrique- But in other good prose writers the plural utrique is occasionally used 
in speaking of only two; as, Utrique Dionysii. Nep. Cf. §209, R. 11, (4.) 

Rem. 33. (a.) Quid am differs from dliquis by implying that a person or 
thing, though indefinitely described, is definitely known; as, Quidam de colle- 
gia nostris, A certain one of our colleagues. Cic. Scis me quodam tempore Met- 
apontum veoisse tecum. Id. 

{b.) Quidam is sometimes used for some, as opposed to the ichole, or to others; 
as, Excesserunt urbe quidam, alii mortem sibi consciverunt, Some departed from 
the city, others destroyed themselves. Liv. Hence it is used to soften an ex- 
pression, where in English we say ' so to speak,' etc. ; as, Milvo est quoddam 
hellion ndturdle cum eorvo, A kind of natural warfare. Cic. Fuit enim illud quod- 
dam cazcum tempus servitutis. Id. Eteyiim omnes aries qiue ad humdnitdtem perti- 
nent, hdbent quoddam commune vinculum et quasi cogndtidne quadam inter se con- 
tinent ur. Id. — Tamquam is used for the same purpose, and also ut ita dicam. 

Rem. 34. Quivis and quilibet, 'anyone,' and unusquisque, 'each,' are uni- 
versal and absolute; as, Omnia sunt ejusmodi quivis ut jyerspicere possit, All are 
of such a nature that any one can perceive. Cic. Hie dpud mdjores nostros adhib- 
ebdtur peritus, nunc quilibet. Id. Ndtura iinumquemque trdhit ad discendum. 
A negative joined with them denies only the universality which they imply; 
as, Xon cuivis homini contingit ddire Cdrinthum, i. e. not to every man without 
distinction. Hor. Cuiquam would have made the negation universal. 

Rem. 35. (a.) Qui s que signifies each, every one, distributively or relatively, 
and generally stands without a noun; as, Quod cuique obtigit, id quisque tentat, 
Let each one keep what has fallen to each. Cic. Hence it is used particularly 
after relative and interrogative pronouns and adverbs; as, Scipio pollicetur sibi 
magncB curce fdre, ut omnia civitdtibus, qua? cujusque fuissent, restituerentur. 
Cic. Ut proedici posset, quid cuique eventurum, et quo quisque fdto ndtus esset. 
Id. Cur fiat quidque queens: recte omnino. Id. Quo quisque est sollertior, 
hoc ddcet labdriosius. Id. Ut quisque optime dicit, ita maxime dicendi difficultdtem 
timet. Id. And hence the expression qudtusquisque in the sense of ' how few 
among all.' It is also used distributively after numerals; as, Decimus quisque 
sorie lectus, Every tenth man. Quinto quoque anno, In every fifth year. So 
also after suus; as, Sui cuique liberi cdnssimi: suum cuique j)ldcet. (Respect- 
ing the order of the words, cf. § 279, 14: and respecting quisque in the nomina- 
tive in apposition to a noun or pronoun in the ablative absolute or in the ac- 
cusative with the infinitive, see § 204, R. 10.) 

(6.) Quisque with a superlative, either in the singular or the plural, denotes 
universality, and is generally equivalent to omnes with the positive ; as, doctis- 
simus quisque, Every learned* man, i. e. all the learned; but often, also, in con- 
nection with the verb, it retains-the idea of a reciprocal comparison, and is to 
be rendered by the superlative ; as, In omni arte optimum quidque rdrissimum, 
The best is the rarest. Cic. Altissima quaeque flumina minima sono Idbuntur, 
The deepest rivers flow with the least sound. Curt. With primus, it denotes 
the Jirst possible ; as, Prima quoque tempdre, As soon as possible. Cic. 

Possessives. 

Rem. 36. (a.) The possessive pronouns meus, tuus, suus, noster, and vester, 
are joined to nouns, to indicate an action or possession of the persons denoted 
by their primitives ; as, Tutus amor meus est tibi, My love is secure to you. 
Ovid. Tuam vicern dolere sdleo. Cic. — These pronouns, as in English, when 
belonging to two substantives, are generally expressed but once, even when 
the substantives are of different genders ; as, amor tuus ac judicium de me. 

(b.) But these pronouns are sometimes used when the persons to which they 
refer are the objects of an action, feeling, etc. ; as, Nam neque tua. negligentid, 
neque ddio id fecit tuo, For he did it neither through neglect -nor hatred of you. 
Ter. See § 211, R. 3. 
17* 



198 SYNTAX. — PRONOUNS — REFLEXIVES. § 208. 

(c.) The possessive pronouns, especially when used as reflexives, are often 
omitted; as, Quo revertarf in patriam? scil. meam, Whither shall I return? 
to (my) country? Ovid. Dextrd munera porrexit, scil. sua. Id. But they are 
expressed when emphasis or contrast is intended, where in English ' own ' 
might be added to the pronoun ; as, Ego non dicam, tdmen id pdteritis cum dni- 
mis vestris cogitdre. Cic. 

(d.) When besides the person of the subject, that of a remote object also 
occurs in the proposition, the possessive pronoun will refer to the latter; as, 
Patris dnimum mihi reconciliasti, i. e. patris mei dnimum rather than tui. 

(e.) As reflexives, mens, etc., are translated my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, 
their ; or my own, thy own, his own, etc. 

THE KEFLEXIVES 8 UI AND SUUS. 

§ 308. Rem. 37. (a.) Sui and suus properly refer to the 

subject of the proposition in which they stand ; as, 

Oppidani f acinus in se ac suos foedum consciscunt, The citizens decide on a 
foul crime against themselves and their friends. Liv. 

(6.) They continue to he used in successive clauses, if the subject 
remains the same ; as, 

Ipse se guisque diligit, non ut dliquam a se ipse mercedem exigat cdriidtis sua?, 
sed quod per se sibi quisque cams est. Cic. 

(1.) In dependent clauses, in which the subject does not remain 
the same, the reflexives are commonly used in references to the lead- 
ing subject, when the thoughts, language, purposes, etc., of that sub- 
ject are stated ; as, 

Aridvistus- prcedicdvit, non sese Gallis,sed Gallos sibi helium intulisse, Ariovistus 
declared that he had not made war upon the Gauls, but the Gauls upon him. 
Cass. Hdmerum Coldphdnii civem esse dlcunt suum, The Colophonians say that 
Homer is their citizen. Cic. Tyrannus petlvit ut se ad dmlcitiam tertium ascribe- 
rent. Id. But sometimes, to avoid ambiguity, the cases of is or ille are used in 
such clauses in references to the leading subject; as, Helvetii sese Allobrdges vi 
coaciuros exisiimdbant, ut per suos fines eos Ire pdterentur. Cass. Here suos 
refers to the subject of the dependent clause, and eos to Htlvetii, the subject of 
the leading clause. And sometimes, even in the same dependent clause, two 
reflexive pronouns are used, referring to different persons ; as, Scythai petebant, 
ut regis sui flliam mdlrimonio sibi jungeret. Curt. 

(2.) If, however, the leading subject, whose thoughts, etc., are ex- 
pressed, is indefinite, the reflexives relate to the subject of a depend- 
ent clause ; as, 

Medeam predicant (scil. Jidmines) in fuga frdtris sui membra in its Idcis, qua 
se parens persequeretur, dissipdvisse. Cic. Ipsum regem trddunt operdtum his 
sacris se abdidisse. Liv. 

(3.) (a.) When the leading verb is in the passive voice, the re- 
flexive often refers not to its subject, but to that which would be its 
subject in the active voice ; as, 

A Ccesdre invltor ut sim sibi legdtus, i. e. Gesar me invltat, I am invited by 
Caesar to become his lieutenant. Cic. 

(b.) So when the subject is a thing without life, the reflexive may 
relate to some other word in the sentence, which denotes a thing hav- 
ing life ; as, 

Canum tarn flda custodia quid significant dliud, nisi se ad Mminum commtidl- 
tdtes esse gendrdtos t Cic. 



§ 208. SYNTAX. — PRONOUNS — REFLEXIVES. 199 

(4.) Instead of sui and suus, whether referring to a leading or a 
subordinate subject, ipse is sometimes used, to avoid ambiguity from 
the similarity of both numbers of sui, and also to mark more emphat- 
ically than suus, the person to whom it relates; as, 

Jugurtha legdtos misit, qui ipsi liberisque rltam petcrent, Jugurtha sent ambas- 
sadors to ask life for himself and his children. Sail. Ea nwlestissime ferre 
hdmines debeni, qua ipsdrum culpa contracta sunt. 

(5.) In the plural number, with inter, se only is used, if the person 
or thing referred to is in the nominative or accusative ; se or ipse, if 
in any other case ; as, 

F nitres inter se quum forma, turn moribus similes, Brothers resembling each 
other both in person and character. Cic. Feras inter sese conciliat na.tu.ra. Cic. 
Incidunt dliqua a doctis etiam inter ipsos mutuo reprehensa. Qnint. 

(6.) (a.) When reference is made not to the subject of the propo- 
sition, but to some other person or thing, hie, is, or Me, is generally 
used, except in the cases above specified ; as, 

Themistddes servum ad Xerxem misit, ut ei nuntidrel, suis verbis, adversdrios 
ejus in fuga esse, Themistoclos sent his servant to Xerxes, to inform him 
(Xerxes), in his (Themistocles') name, that his (Xerxes') enemies were upon 
the point of flight. Xep. 

(b.) But when no ambiguity would arise, and especially when the 
verb is of the first or second person, sui and suus sometimes take the 
place of the demonstrative pronouns ; as, 

Suam rem slbi salvam sistam, I will restore his property entire to him. Plaut. 

(c.) On the contrary, the demonstratives are sometimes used for 
the reflexives ; as, 

Eelvetii persudde?it Raurdcis, ut una cum iis prqficiscantur, The Helvetii per- 
suade the Rauraci to go with them. Cses. — In some instances, a reflexive and 
a demonstrative are used in reference to the same person ; as, Ita se gessit 
(scil. Ligdrius) ut ei pdeem esse expediret. Cic. C. Claudii orantis per sui frd- 
tris pdrentisque ejus mdnes. Liv. — Sometimes the reflexives refer to different 
subjects in the same sentence; as, Aridcistus respondit, neminem secum sine 
sua pernicie contendisse (Caes.); where se refers to Ariovistus, and sua to 
neminem. 

(7.) (a.) Suus often refers to a word in the predicate of a sentence, 
and is then usually placed after it ; as, 

Hunc dves sui ex urbe ejecerunt, Him his fellow -citizens banished from the 
city. Cic. Tilurius quum prdcul Ambiorigem, suos cuhortantem, conspexisset. Caes. 

(6.) Suus, and not hujus, is used when a noun is omitted; as, 
Octdvius quern sui (scil. amlci) Ckesdrem sdlutabant, Octavius, whom his fol- 
lowers saluted as Caesar. 

(c.) Suus is also commonly used when two nouns are coupled by 
cum but not when they are connected by a conjunction ; as, 

Ptdlemaius dmicos Demetrii cum suis rebus dimlsit, Ptolemy dismissed the 
friends of Demetrius with their effects. Just. 

(8.) Suus sometimes denotes Jit, favorable ; as, 

Sunt et sxia dona pdrenti, There are likewise for my father suitable presents. 
Yirg. Ut liberator Me pojn'di Rumdni opperiretur tempdra 6ua. Liv. Alphenus 
utebdtur pdpulo sane suo. Cic. Sometimes it signifies peculiar ; as, Molles sua 
tura Sdbdei, scil. miltunt, i. e. the frankincense for which their country was fa- 
mous. Virg. Fessosque sdpor suus occiput artus. Id. 



200 SYNTAX. — SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. § 209. 

NOMINATIVE. 
SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 

§ 209. (a.) The noun or pronoun which is the subject of 
a finite verb is put in the nominative. 

Note 1. (a.) A verb in any mood except the infinitive is called a finite verb, (b.) In 
historical writing the nominative is sometimesjoined with the present infinitive instead 
of the imperfect indicative. Cf. R. 5. 

(b.) A verb agrees with its subject-nominative, in number 
and person ; as, 

Ego lego, I read. Nos legimus, We read. 

Tu scribis, Thou writest. Vos scrlbitis, You write. 

Equus currit, The horse runs. Equi currant, Horses run. 

Note 2. The imperative singular is sometimes used in addressing several 
persons; as, Hue ndtas adjice septem, scil. vos, Thebaides. Ovid. Met. 6, 182. 
So Adde defeciionem Itdlice, scil. vos, mllites. Liv. 26, 41. 

Remark 1. (a.) The nominatives ego, tu, nos, vos, are seldom ex- 
pressed, the termination of the verb sufficiently marking the person ; 
as, 

Cupio, I desire; vims, thou livest; habemus, we have. See § 147, 3. 

(b.) But when emphasis or opposition is intended, the nominatives of the 
first and second persons are expressed ; as, Ego reges eject, vos tyrannos intrc- 
ducitis, I banished kings, you introduce tyrants. Auct. ad Her. Nos, nos, dlco 
aperte, consules desumus. Cic. Tu es patronus, tu pater, Ter. In indignant 
questions and addresses tu is expressed ; as, Tu in forum prodlre, tu lucem 
conspicere, tu in lidrum conspectum venire condris ? Auct. ad Her. 

Rem. 2. The nominative of the third person is often omitted : — 
(1.) When it has been expressed in a preceding proposition : — 

(a.) As nominative; as, Mdsa prqfluit ex monte Vosego, et in Ocednum influit. 
Caes. ; or (b) in an oblique case; as, Cursorem mlserunt, ut id nuntidret, scil. 
cursor. Nep. : or (c) in a possessive adjective; as, Et vereor quo se Junonia 
vertant Hospitia ; haud tanto cessabit cardine rerum } scil. ilia, i. e. Juno. Virg 
JEn. I. 672. 

(2.) When it is a general word for person or thing : — 
Thus hdmines is often omitted before aiunt, dlcunt, ferunt, etc. ; as, Ut aiunt, 
As they say. Cic. Maxime admlrantur cum, qui pecunid non movetur. Id. — 
So bene est, bene habet or bene agitur, It is well; as, Si vales, bene est, ego valeo. 
Cic. Quum melius est, grdtulor dis. Afran. Optume_ habet, Nothing can be 
better. Plaut. Bene habet: jacta sunt funddmenta def'ensionis. Cic. Bene agi- 
tur pro noxia. Plaut. 

Note 3. This omission of the nominative is common in the clause preced- 
ing a relative ; as, Qui Bdvium non odit, dmet tua carmina, Mcevi, scil. hdmo, Let 
him who hates not Bavius, love your verses, Msevius. Virg. > Vastdtur agri quod 
inter urbem ac Fidenas est, scil. id spdtium. Liv. Sunt quos juvat...scil. hdmines, 
There are (those) whom it delights. Hor. Est qui nee veteris pdcula Massici 
spernit, scil. hdmo. Hor. Here sunt quos and est qui are equivalent to qmdam, 
dllquls, or dliqui. So, Est quod gaudeas, There is (reason) why you should re- 
joice. Cic. Neque erat cur fallere vellent. Ovid. Est ubi id valeat. Cic. Est, 
quum non est sdhus, etc. Auct. ad Her. In the latter cases, the adverbs aro 
equivalent to in quo, scil. Idco, tempdre. 



§ 209. SYNTAX. SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. 201 

Rem. 3. (1.) The nominative is ivanting before verbs denoting the 
state of the weather, or the operations of nature ; as, 

Fulgurate It lightens. Plin. Ningit, It snows. Virg. Lucescebat, It was 
growing light. Liv. Jam advesperascit. Cic. 

(2.) The nominative is also wanting before the third person singu- 
lar of the passive of neuter verbs, and of active verbs used imper- 
sonally ; as, 

Favetur tlbi a me, Thou art favored by me. Ejus drdtioni vehementer ab omni- 
bus reclainatum est. Cic. Proinde ut bene vivUur, diu vivitur. Plaut. Ad eas- 
tern ventum est. Sen. Actum est de imperii). See § 184, 2 : and cf. § 229, 
R. 5, (6.) 

Note 4. A nominative, however, is expressed before the passive of some 
neuter verbs, which, in the active voice, are followed by an accusative; as, 
JPugna pugndta est. Cic. See § 232, (1.) 

(3.) It is wanting also before the neuter of the future passive parti- 
ciple with est ; as, 

Si tis me fiere dolendum est prlmum ipsi tibi, If you wish me to weep, you 
yourself must first grieve. Hor. Orandum est, ut sit mens sana in corpdre sdno. 
Juv. Ad villain revertendum est. Cic. 

(4.) The nominative is also wanting before the impersonal verbs 
miseret, poznilet, piidet, tcedet, and piget; as, 

Eos ineptidrum pcenitet, They repent of their follies. Cic. Miseret le aliorum, 
tui te nee miseret nee pudet. Plaut. Me clvildtis mbrum piget taidetque. Sail. — 
In such examples, the sense will sometimes permit us to supply fortuna, condi- 
tio, memdria, etc. So in the expression, Venit in mentem, It came into mind ; 
as, In mentem venit de speculo, scil. c6gttdlio } etc. Plaut. — An infinitive or a sub- 
junctive clause sometimes forms the subject of these verbs; as, Te id nullo 
modo puduit f acere, To do that by no means shamed you. Ter. Non pcenitet 
me, quantum prof ecerim. Cic. 

(5.) The subject of the verb is sometimes an infinitive or a neuter 
participle (either alone or with other words), one or more proposi- 
tions, or an adverb. (Cf. § 202, R. 2 and 3 : and § 274, R. 5, (b.) The 
verb is then in the third person singular ; as, 

Vacare culpa magnum est solatium, To be free from fault is a great consola- 
tion. Neque est te fall ere quidquam, To deceive you in any thing is not (possi- 
ble.) Virg. Mentiri turn est mtum. Plaut. Te non istud audivisse mirum est, 
That you have not heard that is wonderful. Cic. ' Summum jus, summa in- 
juria,' factum est jam tritum sermone proverbium. Id. Ni degeneratum in aliis 
hide qudque decdri offecisset. Liv. (Cf. § 274, R. 5, (b.) Sin est ut velis manere 
illam apud te. Ter. Nee profuit Hydra crescere per damnum, geminasque 
resumere vires. Ovid. Die mihi, eras istud, Postume, quando venit ? Tell me, 
Postumus, when does that to-morrow comeV Mart. Parumne campis atque 
Neptu.no super fusum est Ldtini sanguinis ? Hor. 

_(«.) This construction is especially common with impersonal verbs; as, Ora- 
torem Irasci non decet, That an orator should be angry, is not becoming. Cic. 
Hoc fieri et dportet et 6pus est. Id. Me pedlbus deleclat claudere verba, Hor. 
Interest omnium recte f acere. Cic. Cdsu accidit, ut, id quod Romas audierat*, 
primus nuntiaret. Id. Sometimes a neuter pronoun is interposed between a 
proposition and its verb ; as, Impune f acere qute libet, id est regem esse. Sail. 
Cf. §206, (13,) (a.) 

(6.) The nominative is also wanting before potest, ccepit or cozptum 
est, incipit, desinit, debet, sdlet, and vldetur, when followed by the in- 
finitive of an impersonal verb ; as, 



202 SYNTAX.— SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. § 209. 

Pigere eumfacti ccepit, It began to repent him (i. e. he began to repent) of 
his conduct. Just. Sdpientia est una, qua jjrwceptrice, in tranquillitdte vivi po- 
test. Cic. Tcedere solet dvdros impendh. Quint. 

Rem. 4. The verb is sometimes omitted ; as, 

Di meliora piis, scil. dent or velint, May the gods grant better things to the 
pious. Virg. Verum hcec hactenus, scil. diximus. Cic. Pertineo is understood in 
such expressions as nihil ad me, nihil ad rem ; Quid hoc ad Epicurum ? What 
does this concern Epicurus ? Quorsus haic f i. e. quorsus hcec pertinent ? What 
is that for ? — Pdrdbo is to be supplied, in Quo mihi hanc rem ? Of what use 
is this to me '? and, TJnde mihi dliquam rem ? Whence am I to get any thing ? 
as, Quo mihi bibliothecas ? Sen. TJnde mihi Idpidem ? Hor. A tense of fdcio is 
often to be supplied, as in Rede Me, melius hi ; Bene Chrysippus, qui docet. Cic. 
Nihil per vim umquam Clodius, omnia per vim Milo. Id. Qua, quum dixisset, 
Cotta J'inem. Id. So, also in the phrases nihil dliud quam ; quid dliud quam ; 
nihil praterquam, which signify 'merely'; as, Tisaphernes nihil dliud quam 
helium compardvit. Nep. This verb is in like manner omitted with nihil amplius 
quam ; nihil minus quam, and in the phrase si nihil dliud. — Ait or inquii is some- 
times omitted in introducing the direct words of another, and more frequently 
in relating a connected conversation ; as, Turn ille ; hie ego ; hide ego. Dick is 
sometimes omitted in quoting a person's words ; as, Scite Chrysippus : ut glddii 
causa vdginam, sic prater mundum cetera omnia dliorum causa esse generdta. Cic. 
— After per in adjurations bro, rogo or precor is often omitted ; as, Per ego vos 
deos patrios, vindicate ab ultimo dedecore nomen gentemque Persdrum ; i. e. per 
deos patrios vos oro, vindicate. Curt. This omission is most common with the 
copula sum; as, Nam Pdlyddrus ego, scil. sum, For I am Polydorus. Virg. And 
so est and sunt are often omitted with predicate adjectives, and especially in 
proverbial phrases ; as, Quot homines tot sentential. Ter. Omnia prceclara rdra, 
scil. sunt. Cic. So also est and sunt are often omitted in the compound tenses 
of the passive voice ; as, Agro mulctdti, scil. sunt. Liv. Cf. § 270, R. 3. 

Note 5. In Latin, as in English, a verb is often joined to one of two con- 
nected nominatives and understood with the other, and that even when the 
persons are different; as, mdgis ego te dmo, quam tu me, scil. dmas. After a 
negative verb a corresponding positive verb is sometimes to be supplied ; as, 
after nego, dico, after veto, jubeo, and in this case et takes the signification of 
sed. Cf. § 323, 1, (2.), (b.) 

Note 6. Sometimes, when the verb of an appended proposition is omitted, 
its subject is attracted to the case of a noun in the leading proposition with 
which is joined a participle of the omitted verb ; as, Hannibal Minucium, md- 
gistrum equitum, pari ac dictatorem ddlo productum in pralium, fiigavit, i. e. 
pari ac dictator ddlo productus fuerat. Nep. Hann. 5. So Liv. 34, 32. 

Rem. 5. In the historic style the nominative is sometimes found 
with the present infinitive ; as, 

Interim qudtldie Cxsar jEduos frumentum flagitare, Meanwhile Caesar was 
daily demanding corn of the jEdui. Cses. Nos pdvidi trepidare metu. Virg. 
Id horrendum ferri. Id. 

Note 7. The infinitive in this construction is called the historical infinitive, 
and is used instead of the imperfect indicative to express in a lively manner a 
continued or repeated action or condition. 

Rem. 6. The relative qui may refer to an antecedent either of the 
first, second, or third person ; and its verb takes the person of the 
antecedent ; as, 

Ego qui lego, I who read. Tu qui sciibis, Thou who wrilest. Equus qui cur- 
rit, The horse which runs. Vos qui quserltis, You who ask. 

Rem. 7. (a.). Verbs in the first person plural, and the second per- 
son singular, are sometimes used to express general truths ; as, 



§ 209. SYNTAX. SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. 203 

Quam mulla facxmus causa dmicorum ! How many things we do (i. e. men do) 
for the sake of friends ! Cic. Si vis me Jlere, dolendum est primum ipsi tibi, 
Whoever wishes me, etc. Hor. 

(b.) Nos is often used for ego, and nosier for meus ; and even when the pro- 
noun is not expressed, the verb is frequently put in the first person plural in- 
stead of the first person singular. The genitive nostri is used for met, but nos- 
trum always expresses a real plurality. 

Rem. 8. The accusative is sometimes used for the nominative by attraction. 
See $ 206, (6.) (b.) 

Rem. 9. The verb sometimes agrees with the predicate-nominative, especially 
if it precedes the verb ; as, Amantium ira dmoris integratio est, The quarrels 
of lovers are a renewal of love. Ter. Loca, qua proxima Carthdginem, Numld- 
in appellatur. Sail. And sometimes it agrees with the nearest subject of a sub- 
ordinate sentence; as, Sed ei cdriora semper omnia, quam decus atque pudicitia 
fait. Sail. Cat. 25. 

Rem. 10. In cases of apposition, the verb commonly agrees with the noun 
which is to be explained; as, Tullidla, dellciae nostra, Ji a gitat. Cic. But some- 
times the verb agrees, not with the principal nominative, but with a nearer 
noun in apposition to it; as, Tungri, civitas Gallia, fontem habet insignem, 
The Tungri, a state of Gaul, has a remarkable fountain. Plin. Cdrioli oppldum 
captum (est). Liv. 

Rem. 11. A collective noun has sometimes, especially in poetry, a 
plural verb ; as, 

Pan epulis oncrant mensas, Part load the tables with food. Virg. Turba 
ruunt. Ovid. Atria turba tcnent; veniunt leve vidgus euntyue. Id. 

(1.) (a.) A plural verb, joined to a collective noun, usually expresses the 
action, etc., of the individuals which that noun denotes. In Cicero, Sallust, 
and Caesar, this construction scarcely occurs in simple sentences; but it is 
often used, when the subject of the verb is expressed not in its own, but in a 
preceding clause; as, Hoc idem generi humdno evenit,quod in terra collocati sint, 
because they (scil. homines) live on earth. Cic. In Livy it occurs more fre- 
quently ; as, Locros omnia multitude abeuut. 

{b.) Abstract nouns are sometimes used collectively, instead of their con- 
cretes; as, nubilitas for nobiles, juvenilis for jiivenes, vicinia for vicini, servitium 
for servi, levis armdtura for leviter armdti, etc. (c) Miles, eques, pedes, and 
similar words are sometimes used collectively for the soldiery, the cavalry, etc. 

(2.) When two or more clauses have the same collective noun as their sub- 
ject, the verb is frequently singular in the former, and plural in the latter; as, 
Jam ne node quidtm turba ex eo loco dTlabebatur, refracturosque carcerem mlna- 
bantur. Liv. Gens eddem, qua te crudeli Daunia bello insequitur, nos si pellant, 
nihil abJ'Ore credunt. Virg. 

(3.) Tanlum, followed by a genitive plural, has sometimes a plural verb, like 
a collective noun ; as, Quid hue tantum hominum incedunl f Why are so many 
men coming hither? Plant. 

(4.) A plural verb is sometimes used, though not by Cicero, after iderque 
and quisque, pars. .pais, alius... dlium, and alter... alte rum, on account of the 
idea of plurality which they involve; as, Vterque eorum ex casli'is exercitum 
edticunt, Each of them leads his army from the camp. Cass. Jntimus quisque 
liberturum vincti abrepti^we (sunt.) Tac. Alius dlium, ul prozlium incipiant, 
circumspectant. Liv. Cf. § 207, R. 32, (c.) 

Note S. This construction may be explained by passages like the following, 
in which the plural is placed first, and then the singular, denoting its parts; 
Ceteri, sua quisque tempore, aderunt. Liv. Decemviri perturbdti alius in dliam 
partem caslrorum discurrunt. Id. See § 204, R. 10. 



204 SYNTAX. — SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. § 209. 

Rem. 12. Two or more nominatives singular, not in apposition, 
generally have a plural verb ; as, 

Furor Ir&que mentem prseclpitant, Fury and rage hurry on (my) mind. Virg. 
Dum (etas, metus, magister, prohlbebant. Ter. 

(1.) If the predicate belongs to the several nominatives jointly, the verb is 
always plural; as, Grammatlce quondam ac musice junctge fuerunt. Quint. 

(2.) A verb in the singular is often used after several nominatives 
singular, especially if they denote things without life ; as, 

Mens enim, et ratio et consilium in senibus est. Cic. JBeneficentia, liberdlttas, 
bonitas, justitia funditus tollitur. Id. 

Note 9. This construction is most common when the several nominatives, 
as in the preceding examples, constitute, as it were, but one idea. So also the 
compound subject Sendtus populusque Romdnus has always a predicate in the 
singular. The same construction sometimes, especially in the poets, occurs 
with names of persons ; as, Gorgias, Thrdsymdchus, Protagoras, Prodicus. Hip- 
pias in hdnore fuit. Cic. Quin et Prometheus et Pelopis parens dulci Idoorum 
decipltur sdno. Hor. When the nominatives denote both persons and things, 
the verb is commonly plural ; as, Coitio consilium et Pompeius obsunt. Liv. 

(3.) When one of the nouns is plural, the verb is generally so; but some- 
times it is singula^ when the plural noun does not immediately precede it ; as, 
Dii te pendtes patrxique, et patris imago, et domus regia, et in domo regale so- 
lium, et nomen Tarqiunium creat vocatgwe regem. Liv. 

(4.) When each of the nominatives is preceded by et or turn, the verb agrees 
with the last; as, Hoc et ratio doctis, et necessitas barbdris, et mos gentibus, et 
feris natiira ipsa praescripsit, This, reason has dictated to the learned, and ne- 
cessity to barbarians, and custom to nations, and nature itself to wild beasts. 
Cic. Et ego, et Cicero mens flagitabit. Id. Turn setas Ylresque, turn dvlta gloria 
dnimum stimulabat. Liv. So when the subject consists of two infinitives; as, 
Et f acere, et pati fortia, Romdnum est. Cic. Unus et alter always takes a singu- 
lar verb ; as, Dlcit unus et alter breviter. Cic. Unus et alter assuitur pannus. 
Hor. 

(5.) When the nominatives are connected by aut, sometimes the 
plural, but commonly the singular, is used ; as, 

Si Socrates aut Antisthenes dlceret, If Socrates or Antisthenes should say. Cic. 
Ut quosque studium prlvdtim aut gratia occupaverunt. Liv. 

(a.) -The plural is necessary with disjunctives, if the subject includes the 
first or second person ; as, Quod in Decemviris neque ego neque Ccesar habiti es- 
semus. Cic. — (b.) With aut.. .aut and nee. ..nee the singular is preferred, but 
with seu...seu and tam...quam the verb is in the plural. 

(6.) A nominative singular, joined to an ablative by the preposition cum, 
sometimes has a singular but more frequently a plural verb ; as, Domitius cum 
Messala certus esse videbatur. Cic. Bocchus, cum peditibus, postremam Ro- 
rndnorum dciem invadunt, Bocchus, with his foot-soldiers, attacks the rear of 
the Koman army. Sail. Ipse dux, cum aliquot principibus, capiuntur. Liv. 

(7.) If the nominatives are of different persons, the verb is of the 
first person rather than the second or third, and of the second rather 
than the third ; as, 

Si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, If you and Tullia are well, 
Cicero and I are well. Cic. Horc neque ego neque tu f ecimus. Ter. Ego popu- 
lusque Romdnus bellum judico f acioque. Liv. 

(a.) Yet sometimes the verb agrees in number and person with the nearest 
nominative, and is understood with the other; as, Vos ipsi et sendtus frequens 
restitit. This is always the case when the action of the verb is qualified with 
reference to each nominative separately ; as, Ego misere tu fcliciler vim. { 



§ 210. SYNTAX. — PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 205 

Rem. 13. The interjections en, ecce, and 0, are sometimes followed 
by the nominative ; as, 

En Priamus! Lo Priam! Virg. En ego. vester Ascdnius. Id. Ecce hdmo 
Caticnus ' Cic. Ecce turn literce. Id. vir Jorlis atque amicus ! Ter. 

PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 

§ 210. A noun in the predicate, after a verb neuter or pas- 
sive, is put in the same case as the subject, when it denotes the 
same person or thing ; as, 

(a.) "When the subject is in the nominative; Ira furor brevis est, Anger is a 
short madness. Hor. Ego vdcor Lvconldes, I am called Lyconides. Plant. 
Ego incedo regma, I walk a queen. Virg. Caius et Lucius fratres fucrunt. Cic. — 
So (b.) when the subject is in the accusative with the infinitive; Judlcem me 
esse volo. Cic. 

(r.) Sometimes also a dative, denoting the same object, both precedes and 
follows a verb neuter or passive. See § 227, N.— And (a.) a predicate abla- 
tive sometimes follows passive participles of choosing, naming, etc.; as, Consult- 
bus certioribus factis. Liv. See § 257, R. 11. 

(e.) If the predicate noun has a form of the same gender as the subject, it 
takes that form; as, Licentia corruptrix est morum. Cf. § 204, R. 2. — (/.) But 
if the subject is neuter, the noun of the predicate, if it has both a masculine 
and a feminine form, takes the former; as, Tempus vitas magister est. 

(g.) An infinitive may supply the place of a predicate nominative. See § 269, 
R. 4. 

Remark 1. (a.) Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles, 
standing in the predicate, after verbs neuter or passive, and relating 
to the subject, agree with it in gender, number, and case. 

(b.) When the subject consists of two or more nouns, the gender and num- 
ber of such predicate adjectives are determined by § 205, R. 2. 

Eem. 2. (a.) The noun in the predicate sometimes differs in gender and 
number from the subject; as, Sanguis erant lacrimal, Her tears were blood. 
Ovid. Captlvi mllitum praeda fucrunt. Liv. 

(6.) So when a subject in the singular is followed by an ablative with cum, 
the predicate is plural ; as, Exsules esse jubet L. Tarquinium cum conjuge et 
Uberu. Liv. 

Rem. 3. The verbs which most frequently have a noun, etc., in the 
predicate agreeing in case, etc., with their subject, are : — 

(1.) The copula sum; as, Ego Jdvis sum filius. Plaut. Disce esse pater. 
Ter. The predicate with sum maybe an adverb of place, manner, etc. ; as, 
Quod est longe aliter. Cic. Rectissime sunt apud te omnia, Every thing with 
you is in a very good condition. Id.; or a noun in an oblique case; as, Numen 
sine ture est. Ovid. Sunt nobis mltia poma. Virg. 

(2.) Certain neuter verbs denoting existence, position, motion, etc.; 
as, vivo, exsisto, appareo, cddo, eo, evado, fugio, incedo, jaceo, maneo, sedto, sto, 
veaio, etc. Thus, Rex circulbat pedes, The king went roqnd on foot. Plin. 
Quos judlcabat non posse oratores evddere. Cic. Ego huic causa; patronus exsiiti. 
Cic. Qui Jit, ut nemo contentus vlvat f 

(3.) The passive of verbs denoting, 

(a.) To name or call; as, appellor, dicor, norranor, nuncupor, perMbeor, 
sdlutor, scrlbor, inscrlbor, vocor. Thus, Cognwaine Justus est apptlldtus, He was 
called by the surname Just. Nep. Aristaius Olivce dicitur inventor. Cic. 

18 



206 SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. §211. 

(b.) To choose, render, appoint, or constitute; as, eonstitvor, creor, 
dccldror, designor, eligor, jfio, reddor, renuncior. Thus, Dux a Rdmdnis electus 
est Q. Fdbius. Postquam ephebus /actus est. Nep. Certior f actus sum. 

(c.) To esteem or reckon; as, censeor, cognoscor, credor, deprehendor, 
existimor, ducor, feror, hdbeor, judicor, memoror, numeror, putor, reperior, videor. 
Thus, Credebar sanguinis auctor ego. Ovid. Mdlim vxderi timidus quam pdrum 
prudens. Cic. 

Note 1. With several passives of the last class, when followed by a predi- 
cate-nominative, etc., an infinitive of sum is expressed or understood; as, 
Amens mihi fuisse videor, I think I was beside myself. Cic. But the dative 
of the first person is sometimes omitted after videor ; as, Satis docuisse videor. 
Id. — Atllius prudens esse pulabdtur. Id. So with dicor (to be said), and perhi- 
beor ; as, Verus patriot diceris esse pater. Mart. Hoc ne locutus sine mercede 
ezistimer. Phaed. 

Note 2. Audio is sometimes used by the poets like appellor; as, Tu rexjue 
paterae audisti coram. Hor. 

Rem. 4. A predicate-nominative is used after many other verbs to denote a 
purpose, time, or circumstance of the action ; as, Comes additus JE6- 
lides, JEolides was added as a companion. Virg. Lupus obambidat noctur- 
nus. Id. Appdret liquido subhmis in cethere Nisus. Id. So with an active 
verb; Audivi hoc puer. Cic. Sapiens nil fdcit invltus. Id. Rempublicam de- 
fendi adolescens. Id. Cf. § 204, R. 1. 

Note 3. Instead of the predicate-nominative, a dative of the end or purpose 
sometimes occurs (see §227); sometimes an ablative with pro; as, auadcia 
pro muro est ; and sometimes the ablatives loco or in numero with a genitive ; 
as, Hie est mihi parentis loco; in hostium numero habetur. 

Rem. 5. The noun opus, signifying ' need,' is often used as a predicate after 
sum. It is, in such cases, translated by the adjectives needful, necessary, etc.; 
as, Dux nobis et auctor opus est. Cic. Midti opus sunt boves. Varr. (Dixit) 
aurum et ancillas opus esse. Ter. Usus also is occasionally so construed. 

Rem. 6. When the pronoun, which is the subject of an infinitive, is omitted, 
the case of the predicate is sometimes, in the poets, attracted into that of the 
subject of the verb on which the infinitive depends; as, Uxor invicti Jovis esse 
nescis, i. e. te esse uxorem. Hor. Retulit Ajax esse Jovis pronepos. Ovid. 

GENITIVE. 

GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. 

§ 211. A noun which limits the meaning of another noun, 
denoting a different person or thing, is put in the genitive ; as, 

Amor gloriai, Love of glory; Arma Achillis, The arms of Achilles ; Pater pa- 
triot, The father of the country; Vitium irai, The vice of anger; Nemorum cus- 
tos, The guardian of the groves ; Amor hdbendi, Love of possessing. 

Note 1. In the first example, amor denotes love in general; glories limits the affection 
to the particular object, glory. Such universally is the effect of the genitive, depending 
upon a noun. Hence the limitation of a noun by a genitive resembles that which is 
effected by an adjective. In each the noun limited constitutes with its limitation only 
a single idea. 

Remark 1. The genitive denotes various relations, the most common of 
which are those of Source; as, Radii solis, The rays of the sun ; — Ca use; as, 
Ddlor pddagrce, The pain of the gout; — Effect; as, Artifex mundi, The Cre- 
ator of the world; — Connection: as, Pater consults, The father of the con- 
sul; — Possession; as, Ddmus Qesdris, The house of Caesar; — Object; as, 
Cogitdtio dlicujus rei, A thought of something; — Purpose; as, Apparatus 
triumphi, Preparation for a triumph ; — A whole; as, Pars hominum, A part 



§ 211. SYNTAX. — GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. 207 

of men ; this is called the partitive genitive ; — Character or Quality; as, 
Addtesc&ns summon auddcice, A youth of the greatest boldness; — Material or 
Co mponent Parts; as, Monies auri, Mountains of gold; Acervus scutorum, 
A heap of shields; — Time; as, Frumentum dicrum decern, Corn for ten days. 
Sail. 

Rem. 2. The genitive is called subjective or active, when it denotes 
either that to which a thing belongs, or the subject of the action, feel- 
ing, etc., implied in the noun which it limits. It is called objective or 
passive, when it denotes the object affected by such action, or towards 
which such feeling is directed ; as. 

Subjective. Objective. 

Facta vtrorum, Deeds of men. Odium vitii, Hatred of vice. 

Dolor animi, Grief of mind. Amor virtutis, Love of virtue. 

Junonis Ira, The anger of Juno. Desiderium dtii, Desire of leisure. 

(a.) Whether a genitive is subjective or objective, is to be determined by 
the meaning of the words, and by their connection. Thus, procidentia Dei 
signifies God's providence, or that exercised by him; timor Dei, the fear of 
God, or that exercised towards him. The same or similar words, in different 
connections, may express both significations. Thus, metus hostium, fear of the 
enemy, may mean, either the fear felt by the enemy, or that felt by their oppo- 
nents. So vulnus Ulixis (Virg. Mn. 2, 4*36.) denotes the wound which Ulysses 
had given; vulnus JEneaz, (Id. Mn. 12, 323.) that which iEneas had received. 

(o.) The relation expressed by the English possessive case is subjective, while 
that denoted by of with its case is either subjective or objective. 

(c.) The objective genitive is of very extensive use in Latin in the limitation 
of verbal nouns and adjectives, whatever may be the construction of the verbs 
from which such nouns and adjectives are derived, whether they take an ac- 
cusative or some other case or even a preposition. 

(d.) When ambiguity would arise from the use of the objective genitive, a 
preposition with an accusative or ablative is commonly used ; as, Amor in 
rempublicam, for reipublicm, Love to the state. Cic. Odium erga Romdnos, for 
Romdndrum. Nep. Cura de salute patriai, for sdlutis. Cic. Prozddtor ex sociis, 
for sociorum. Sail. Sometimes both constructions are combined ; as, Reverentia 
adversus homines et optimi cujusque et reliqubrum. Cic. Off. 1, 28. 

Note. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition, 
especially with vox, nomen, verbum, etc.; as, vox voluptatis, the word pleasure; 
nfuniii amicltiae, the word dmlcitia; domini appelldiio. This is usual when the 
genus is defined by the species; as, arbor fici, a fig-tree; jlos vioke, a Adolet; 
virtus contlnentia', the virtue of abstinence: and in geographical names ; as, 
qppidum Antiochiae. Cf. § 204, K. 6. — Cicero frequently uses a genitive in this 
manner with genus and causa; as, Unum f/enus est edrum, qui, etc. Duas sunt 
causx, una pudoris, altera sceleris. — So, also, the genitive of gerunds; as, Triste 
est nomen ipsum carendi, The very Avord to want is sad. Cic. 

Rem. 3. (a.) A substantive pronoun in the genitive, limiting the 
meaning of a noun, is commonly objective ; as, 

Cura mei, Care for me. Ovid. Pars tut, Part of thee. Id. Vestri curam dgite. 
Curt. This genitive is used especially with verbal substantives in or, ix and io ; 
as, Accusdtor mei. Cic. Nimia astimdtio sui. Id. Rdtidnem et sui et dliorum 
habere. Id. 

(b.) Instead of the subjective or possessive genitive of a substantive 
pronoun, the corresponding adjective pronoun is commonly used ; as, 

Liber mens, not liber mei, my book. Cura mea, My care, i. e. the care exer- 
cised by me. Cic. Tuas litems exspecto. Id. Yet the subjective genitive of a 
substantive pronoun sometimes occurs; as, Tui unius studio, By the zeal of 
yourself alone. Cic. 



208 SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTEB NOUNS. § 211. 

(c.) And not unfrequently, also, an adjective pronoun occurs instead of the 
objective genitive ; as, Mea injuria, Injury to me. Sail. So, Invidia tua, Envy 
of thee. Fiducia tua, Confidence in thee. Plaut. Spes mea, The hope placed 
in me. With causa the adjective pronoun, and never the genitive, is used; 
as, Med causa, For my sake. Plaut. 

Rem. 4. (a.) Instead, also, of the subjective genitive of a noun, a possessive 
adjective is often used; as, Causa regia, for causa regis. Cic. Herilis films, for 
heri flius. Id. Evandrius ensis, for Evandri. Virg. Herciileus labor, for Her- 
culis. Hor. Clvllis furor, for clvium. Hor. So, also, for the objective genitive, 
Metus hostilis, Fear of the enemy. Sail. 

(b.) The genitive of the person implied in the adjective pronoun or possessive 
adjective, or an adjective agreeing with such genitive, is sometimes added as 
an apposition; as, Vestrd ipsdrum causa hoc feci. In the poets and later prose 
writers a participle also is found agreeing with such implied genitive; as, Mea 
scripta vulgo recitdre timentis. Hor. Cf. $ 204, R. 4, and § 205, R. 13. 

Rem. 5. In the predicate after sum, and sometimes after other 
verbs, the dative is used like the objective genitive ; as, 

Idem amor exitium pecori (est), pecdrisque magistro. Virg. Vltis ut arboribus 
decdri est, ut vitibus uvce — Tu decus omne tuis. Virg. In this passage the dative 
decdri and the nominative decus are used with no difference of meaning. 
Cf. § 227, R. 4. Auctor fui senatui. Cic. Murcena legatus Lucullo fuit. Id. 
Erit ille mihi semper deus. Virg. Huic causae patrdnus exstiti. Cic. Huic ego 
me bello ducem prdfiteor. Id. Se tertium (esse) cui fdtum fdret urbis potlri. 
Id. — Cum P. Afncdno sendtus egit, ut legatus fratri proflcisceretur. Id. Ccesar 
tegimenta galeis mllites ex viminibus f acere jubet. Caes. Trindbantibus Ccesar 
imperak—fi-umentum exercitui. Id. Quod neque insidice consuli procedebant. 
Sail. Quern exitum tantis malis sperarent? Id. Sanctus vir et ex sententia 
ambobus, scil. qui fuit. Id. See § 227, R. 4. 

Note. The dative in the preceding examples has been thought by some grammarians 
to depend on the nouns connected with it; as, exitium, decus, auctor, legatus, deus, 
jpatrSnus, etc. ; by others it has been held to depend on these nouns in connection with 
the verbs, and not upon either separately ; but the better opinion seems to be that, which 
makes such datives grammatically dependent upon the verbs only, though logically con- 
nected also with the nouns. 

(1.) Instead, also, of the possessive genitive, a dative of the person 
may follow a verb, when its act has relation to the body or possessions 
of such person ; as, 

Sese omnes flenies Csesari ad pedes projecerunt, They all, weeping, cast 
themselves at the feet of Caesar. Caes. Cui corpus porrigiiur, For whom the 
body, i. e. whose body, is extended. Virg. Turn vero exur sit juveni doloi' ossibus 
ingens. Id. Transfigitur scutum Pulfioni. Cass. 

Rem. 6. When the limiting noun denotes a property, charac- 
ter, or quality, it has an adjective agreeing with it, and is put 
either in the genitive or the ablative ; as, 

Vir exempli recti, A man of correct example. Liv. Addlescens summce auddcice, 
A youth of the greatest boldness. Sail. Fossa pedum viginti, A ditch of twenty 
feet, (i. e. in width). Cass. Hamilcar se cum duxit f ilium Hanmbdlem annorum 
novem. Nep. Athenienses deligunt Periclem, spectator virtutis virum. Just. 
Quinqudginla annorum imperium. Id. Iter unius diei. Cic. Pulchritudlne ex- 
\m\i\ f emina, A woman of exquisite beauty. Cic. Maximo natu filius, The 
eldest son. Nep. L. Cdtil'ma Juit magna vi et dnimi et corpdris, sed ingenio 
miilo pravoque. Sail. Spclunca inf inlta altitudine. Cic. — Sometimes both con- 
structions occur in the same proposition; as, Lentulum nostrum, eximia spe, 
summae virtutis ddOlescenttm. Cic. 



§211. SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. 209 

(1.) A genitive sometimes supplies the place of the adjective; and the noun 
denoting the property, etc., is then always put in the ablative; as, Est bos 
cervi figura,...of the' form of a stag. Caes. Uri specie et colore tauri. Id. 
Fritex palmi altitudine. Plin. Cldvi digit! polllcis crassitudine. Caes. 

(2.) All the qualities and attributes of persons and things, whether inherent 
or accidental, may be thus expressed by the genitive and ablative of quality, 
provided the substantives are immediately connected ; as, fossa quindecim pedum; 
hdmo antlqud virtide. It hence follows that such genitives and ablatives, when 
used to express duration of time or extent of space, are distinguished from the 
cases in which the accusative is required, since the latter case always follows 
adjectives or verbs; as, fossa quindecim pedes latar^uer decern annos natus. 
Cf. § 236. 

(3.) Whether the genitive or the ablative of quality is preferable in particu- 
lar cases, can frequently be determined only by reference to classical authority; 
but, in general, the genitive is used more frequently to express inherent quali- 
ties than such as are merely accidental, while the ablative is used indifferently 
for either purpose. In speaking of transitory qualities or conditions the abla- 
tive is always used; as, Magno timore sum, I am in great fear. Cic. Bdno dnimo 
sum. Id. Quanto fue rim dolor e meministi. Id. Maximo hdnore Servius Tullius 
erat. Liv. With plural substantives the genitive is rare ; whife in expressions 
of measure it is used rather than the ablative. 

(4.) An accusative instead of a genitive of quality is used with secus (sex), 
gSnas and pondo ; as, Liberorum cdpitum virile secus ad decern millia capta, i. e. 
of the male sex, instead of sexus tirllis. Liv. So genus, when joined with a 
pronoun, as hoc, id, illud, quod, or with omne, is used for hujus, ejus, omnis, etc., 
generis; as, Ordtiones aut dliquid id genus scribere, — of that kind. Cic. Concre- 
dere Hugos hoc genus. Hor. So pondo is joined as an indeclinable word to the 
accusatives libram and libras; as, Dictator c&ronam auream libram pondo in 
C dpi t olio Jdvi donum j)dsuit,...SL pound in weight. Liv. Cf. $ 236, E. 7. 

(5.) The genitive modi with an adjective pronoun supplies the place of a 
pronoun of quality ; as, cujusmodi libri, the same as qudles libri, what kind of 
books; hujusmddi libri, i. e. tales libri, such books. So, also, generis is used, 
but less frequently. 

(6.) With the genitive of measure are often connected such ablatives as 
lonqitudine, luiitudine, etc., or in longitudinem, etc.; as, fossa decern pedum Idti- 
tumne ; but the genitive does not depend on these words. 

(7.) Sum may be followed by either the genitive or the ablative of quality 
with an ellipsis of the word limited, which, with the genitive, is homo, res, nego- 
tium, proprium or prdprius, etc., and with the ablative, praiditus, instructus, 
or >ult us, etc. Cf. Rem. 8, and §§ 244, and 249, L. 

Rem. 7. (1.) The limited noun is sometimes omitted; as, mi serai sortis! 
scil. hdmines ; (men) of wretched fortune! Lucan. Ad Diana, scil. adem. 
Ter. Htctdris Andrdmdche,sc'i\. uxor. Virg. Suspicionis vitandce, scil. causa. Tac. 
So filius or fllia ; as, Hannibal Gisgonis. 

(2.) The omitted noun may sometimes be supplied from the preceding words ; 
as. Ciijum pecus ? an MeUbod ? Non ; verum ^Egonis, scil. pecus. Virg. An 
adjective is often expressed referring to the noun omitted; as, Nullam virtus 
dllam mercedtm deslderat, propter banc (scil. rnercedem) laudis. Cic. 

Rem. 8. The limited noun is often wanting in the predicate of a 
sentence after sum. This usually happens, 

(1.) When it has been previously expressed ; as, 

Bcec d6mus est Ccesdris, This house is Caesar's. Nomen aurce tarn scepe vdca- 
tum esse putans Xymphce. Ovid. Naves dncrd/ias, qudrum minor nulla erat duum 
millium amphdrum, i. e. qudrum minor nulla erat quam navis duum, etc. Cic. 

(2.) When it is a general word denoting a person, an animal, 
etc. ; as, 

18* 



210 SYNTAX. — GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. § 211. 

Thucydides, qui ejusdem cetdtis fuit, scil. hdmo, Thucydides, who was of the 
same age. Nep. Multum ei detraxit, quod alienee erat civitdtis, scil. hdmo or civis. 
Id. Primum stipendium meruit anndrum decern septemque, scil. ddolescens. Id. 
Summi ut sint Idboris efficiunt, scil. dnimdlia. Cass. ( Claudius) somni brevissimi 
erat. Suet. Mird sum dlacritdte. Cic. Vulgus ingenio mdbili erat. Sail. Non 
est juris sui, He is not his own master. Lucan. Pdtestdtis sum esse. Liv. 
Sudrumque rerum erani. Id. Cf. Rem. 6, (7.) 

(3.) When it is a general word denoting thing, for which, in Eng- 
lish, the words part, property, duty, office, business, characteristic, etc., 
are commonly supplied ; as, 

Temeritas est fidrentis cetdtis, prudentia senectutis, Rashness is (the character- 
istic) of youth, prudence of old age. Cic. Est hoc Gallicaz consuetudinis. Cass. 
So, stulttti(e est ; est levitdtis, etc., which are equivalent to stultitia est, levitas est. 
Omnia hostium erant. A paucis emi, quod multdrum esset. Sail. 

(a.) This happens especially when the subject of the verb is an infinitive, or 
an entire clause, in which case, instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, 
mei, tui, etc., the neuters of the possessives, meum, tuum, etc., are used; as, 
Adolescentis est mdjdres ndtu revereri, It is (the duty) of a youth to reverence 
the aged. Ovid. Cujusvis hdminis est errdre, mdlius nisi insipientis in en-ore 
perseverdre. Cic. Pauperis est numerdre pecus. Ovid. So especially moiis est ; 
as, Negdvit mdris esse Grcecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumberent multires, the 
same as morem esse Gracdrum. Cic. Nihil tarn cequandce libertdtis esse. Liv. 
So when the verb is omitted ; Tamen officii duxit, exdi'dre patrem, scil, esse. 
Suet. Non est mentiri meum. Ter. Tuum est, M. Cdto, videre quid dgdtur. ■ 

(b.) Instead of the genitive of a substantive, also, the neuter of a possessive 
adjective derived from it is sometimes usedj as, Humanum est errdre, To err 
is human. Ter. Et facere et pdti fortia Romanum est. Liv. 

(4.) The same construction sometimes occurs after fdcio, and some other 
verbs mentioned in § 230, esse being understood ; as, Asia Rdmdnorum facta est, 
Asia became (a possession) of the Romans. Just. Agrum sua ditionis fecisse. 
Liv. 

(5.) The limited noun is sometimes wanting, when it is a general word, 
though not in the predicate after sum ; as, Magni formica Idboris, scil. animal, 
The ant (an animal) of great labor. Hor. So Ei venit in mentem pdtestdtis turn, 
scil. memdria, or the like. Cic. 

Note. When the noun which is wanting denotes a thing, grammarians sometimes sup- 
ply nSgotium. offtcium, munus, opus, res, causa, etc. It is an instance of a construc- 
tion common in Latin, to omit a noun when a general idea is intended. See § 205, 
Rem. 7, (2.) 

Rem. 9. The limiting noun also is sometimes omitted ; as, 

Tria millia, scil. passuum. In most cases of this kind, an adjective, adjec- 
tive pronoun, or participle, is expressed in the genitive. 

Rem. 10. Two genitives sometimes limit the same noun, one of 
which is commonly subjective, and the other objective ; as, 

Agamemnonis belli gloria, Agamemnon's glory in war. Nep. Illius adminis- 
trdtio provincial. Cic. Eorum dierum consuetudine Itineris nostri exercitus per- 
spectd. Cass. Orbitas reipublicas talium virorum. Cic. Pro veteribus Helvetio- 
rum injuriis populi Romani. Cass. 

Rem. 11. Opus and usus are rarely limited by a genitive or accusa- 
tive, but generally by an ablative, of the thing needed ; as, 

Argenti dpus fuit, There was need of money. Liv. Ad consilium pensandum 
temporis dpus esse. Id. Prooemii non semper usus est. Quint. Si quo operse 
edrum usus est. Liv. Puero opus est cibum. Plaut. Usus est hominem aslutum. 
Id. See § 243. 



§ 212. SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER PARTITIVES. 211 

Rem. 12. The relation denoted by the genitive in Latin, is gener- 
ally expressed, in English, by of, or by the possessive case. Cf. R. 2, (&.) 
The objective genitive may often be rendered by some other prepo- 
sition ; as, 

Rcmedium ddldris, A remedy for pain. Injuria patris, Injury to a father. 
Descensus Averni, The descent to A vermis. Ira belli, Anger on account of the 
war. Pdtestas ret, Power in or over a thing. 

Note. Certain limitations of nouns are made by the accusative with a preposition, 
and by the ablative, either with or without a preposition. Cf. $ 202, 6, 1, and II. 

GENITIVE AFTER PARTITIVES. 

§ 212. Nouns, adjectives, adjective pronouns, and adverbs, 

denoting a part, are followed by a genitive denoting the whole ; 

as, 

Pars dvitdtis, A part of the state. Nulla sdrbrum, No one of the sisters. 
AUquis phildsophdrum, Some one of the philosophers. Quis mortdlium ? Who of 
mortals V Major juvenum, The elder of the youths. Doctissimus Romdndrum, 
The most learned of the Romans. Multum pecuniae, Much (of) money. Satis 
eloquentivc, Enough of eloquence. Ubinam gentium sumus? Where on earth 
are we? 

Note. The genitive thus governed denotes either a number, of which the partitive de- 
signates one or more individuals; or a whole, of which the partitive designates a portion. 
In the latter sense, the genitive of common and abstract nouns commonly follows either 
the neuter of adjectives and adjective pronouns, or adverbs; and that of material nouns 
depends on substantives signifying quantity, weight or measure ; as, mSdimnum trltlci, 
a bushel of wheat; libra f arris ; jugitrum agri; magna vis auri. 

Remark 1. Nouns denoting a part are pars, nemo, nihil, etc., and 
also nouns denoting measure, weight, etc. ; as, modius, medimnum, 
and libra : as, 

Nemo nostrum, No one of us. Maxima pars hominum. Nihil humandrun 
rerum. Cic. Dimidium mill turn. Liv. Medimnum tritlci. Cic. 

Rem. 2. Adjectives and adjective pronouns, denoting a part of a 
number, including partitives and words used partitively, compara- 
tives, superlatives, and numerals, are followed by the genitive plural, 
or by the genitive singular of a collective noun. 

(1.) Partitives (§104, 9,); as, ullus, nullus, solus, alius, iter, uteraue, utercum- 
que, utervis, uterlibet, neuter, alter, alteruter, dliquis, quidam, quispiam, quisquis, 
quisque, quisquam, quicumque, unusquisaue, quis f qui f qudt f qudtus ? qudtusquis- 
que t tot, aliquot, nonnulli, plerique, multi, pauci, medius. Thus, Quisqriis deorum, 
Whoever of the gods. Ovid. Consilium alter, One of the consuls. Liv. Multi 
hominum, Many men. Plin. Et medius juvenum ibat ; i. e. between. Ovid. For 
the gender of adjectives used partitively, see § 205, R. 12. 

(2.) Words used partitively; as, Expedlti militum, The light-armed (of the) 
soldiers. Liv. Delecli equitum . Id. Veteres Romdndrum ducum. Veil. Superi 
deorum, The gods above. Hor. Sancte deorum. Virg. Degeneres cdnum. Plin. 
Piscium femiiue. Id. 

(3.) Comparatives and superlatives; as, Doctior juvenum. Oratbrum prces- 
tantissimus. E Idquentisslmus Romdndrum. Optimus omnium. 

(4.) Numerals, both cardinal and ordinal; also the distributive singuli; as, 
Equitum centum quinqudginta interfecti, A hundred and fifty of the horsemen 
were killed. Curt. Sdptentum octdvus. Hor. Singulos vestrum. Curt. 



212 SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER PARTITIVES. § 212. 

(5.) The meaning is often nearly the same, whether the partitive adjective agrees in 
case and number with a noun, or takes such noun after it in the genitive ; as, Doctissi- 
mus Romanorum, or, doctisslmus Romanus : Alter consilium, or alter consul. But the 
genitive cannot be used, when the adjective includes the same number of things as that 
of which the whole consists; as, VSniamus ad vivos, qui duo siipersunt ; not quorum 
duo, since these are all, though we say in English, ' of whom two survive.' 

Note 1. (a.) The comparative with the genitive denotes one of two individ- 
uals or classes ; the superlative denotes a part of a number greater than two ; 
as, Major frdtrum, The elder of two brothers. Maximus frdtrum, The eldest 
of three or more. 

(b.) In like manner, titer, alter, and neuter, generally refer to two; quis, alius, 
and nullus, to a whole consisting of more than two ; as, Uter nostrum ? Which 
of us (two ?) Quis vestrum ? Which of you (three or more ?) 

Note 2. Nostrum and vestrum are used as partitive genitives, in preference 
to nostri and vestri, and are always joined with omnium even when the genitive 
is a subjective one; as, Patria, qua communis est omnium nostrum parens. Cic. 
But vestrum sometimes occurs in other connections also without a partitive 
meaning ; as, Quis erit tarn ctipidus vestrum. Cic. 

Note 3. The partitive word is sometimes omitted ; as, Fles nbbilium tu qu6- 
que fontium, scil. unus. Hor. Centies sestertium, scil. centena millia. 

Note 4. The noun denoting the whole, after a partitive word, is often put 
in the ablative, with the prepositions de, e, ex, or in, or in the accusative, with 
dpud or inter ; as, Nemo de iis. Alter ex Censoribus. Liv. Unus ex multis. Cic. 
Acerrimus ex sensibus. Id. Thdles, qui sdpientissimus in septem fuit. Id. 
Primus inter omnes. Virg. Croesus inter reges dpulentissimus. Sen. Apud Hel- 
vetios nobilissimus. 

Note 5. The whole and its parts are frequently placed in apposition, dis- 
tributively; as, Interfectores, pars in f&rum, pars Syrdcusas pergunt. Liv. 
See § 204, K. 10. 

Note 6. Cuncti and omnes, like partitives, are sometimes followed by a gen- 
itive plural; as, Attains Macedonum fere omnibus persudsit, Attalus persiiaded 
almost all the Macedonians. Liv. Cunctos hominum. Ovid. Cunctas provinci- 
arum. Plin. 

Note 7. In the following passage, the genitive singular seems to be used like 
that of a collective noun : Tdtius autem injustitias nulla capita I 'tor est, etc. Cic. 
Off. 1, 13. The phrase Rem nullo mddo probdbrlem omnium (Cic. Nat. Deor. 1, 
27,) seems to be used for Hem nullo omnium mddorum probdbilem. 

Rem. 3. The genitive denoting a whole, may depend on a neuter 
adjective or adjective pronoun. With these the genitive singular is 
commonly used ; as, 

Plus eldquentice, More (of ) eloquence. Tantum fidei, So much fidelity. Id 
tempdris, That time. Ad hoc cetdtis. Sometimes the genitive plural; as, Id 
miseridrum. Ter. Armorum quantum. Caes. 

Note 1. (a.) Most neuter adjectives used partitively denote quantity; as, 
tantum, quantum, aliquantum, plus, minus, minimum, dimidium, multum, uimi/un, 
paulum, plurimum, reliquum ; with the compounds and diminutives, iantidum. 
tantundem, quantulum, quantulumcumque, etc.; to which add medium, summimi, 
ultimum, dliud, etc. The pronouns thus used are hoc, id, illud, istud, idem, quod, 
and quid, with their compounds, dliquid, quidquid, quippiam, quidquam, quod" 
cumque. 

(b.) Most of these adjectives and pronouns may either agree with their 
nouns, or take a genitive ; but the latter is more common. Tantum, quantum, 
6liquantum, and plus, when they denote quantity, are used with a genitive only, 
as are also quid and its compounds, when they denote a part, sort, etc., and 
qudd in the sense of quantum. Thus, Quantum crevit N litis, tantum spei in 
annum est. Sen. Quid mulieris uxor em Mbesf What kind of a woman... Ter. 



§ 212. SYNTAX. — GENITIVE AFTER PARTITIVES. 213 

Aliquid forma?. Cic. Quid hoc rei est? What does this mean? Ter. Qzwdauri, 
quod argent i, quod ornamentorum fuit, id Verves abstulit. 

Note 2. Neuter adjectives and pronouns, when followed by a genitive, are 
to he accounted substantives, and in this construction are found only in the 
nominative and accusative. 

Note 3. Sometimes the genitive after these adjectives and pronouns is a 
neuter adjective, of the second declension, without a noun; as, Tantum bdni, 
So much good. Si quid hdbes novi, If you have any thing new. Cic. Quid 
reliqui est? Ter. Nihil is also used with "such a genitive; as, Nihil sinceri, No 
sincerity. Cic. This construction occurs very rarely with neuter adjectives in 
e of the third declension, and only in connection with neuters of the second 
declension; as, Si quidquam non dico civilis sedhumdni esset. Liv. 

Note 4. In the poets and in the prose writers later than Cicero, neuter ad- 
jectives in the plural number are sometimes followed by a genitive, either sin- 
gular or plural, with a partitive signification; as, Extrema imperii, The fron- 
tiers of the empire. Tac. Pontes et viarum angusta, The bridges and the nar- 
row parts of the roads. Id. Opdca Idcorum. Virg. Antiqua fozderum. Liv. 
Cuncta campdrum. Tac. Exercent colles, atque horum- asperrima pascunt. Virg. 
Cf. § 205, R. 9. 

Rem. 4. The adverbs sat, satis, parum, nimis, abunde, largiter, 
affdtbn, and partim, used partitively, are often followed by a geni- 
tive; as, 

Sot ratidnis, Enough of reason. Virg. Satis eldquentioz, parum sapientice, 
Enough of eloquence, (yet) but little wisdom. Sail. Nimis insididrum. Cic. 
Terroris et fraudis abunde est. Virg. Auri et argenti largiter. Plaut. Cdpidrum 
affdtim. Liv. Quum partim illdrum mild fdmilidrissimi essent. Cic. 

Note 1. The above words, though generally adverbs, seem, in this use, rather 
to be nouns or adjectives. 

Note 2. (a.) The genitives gentium, terrarum, Idci, and Idcorum, with certain 
adverbs of place, strengthen their meaning; as, Usquam terrarum. Just. Usquam 
gentium, Any where whatever. Plaut. Ubi terrarum sumus? Where in the 
world are we ? Cic. Abire quo terrarum possent. Liv. Ubi sit Idci. Plin. Eo 
Idci, equivalent to eo loco, In that place. Tac. Eddem Idci res est. Cic. Nescire 
quo 16ci esset. Id. But the last three examples might perhaps more properly 
be referred to Rem. 3. 

(b.) The adverbs of place thus used are ubi, ubinam, ubicumque, uoiubi, ubivis, 
ubique, unde, usquam, nusquam, quo, qubcumque, quovis, qudquo, dliquo, hie, huc % 
eo, eddem. Ldci also occurs after ibi and ibidem ; gentium after longe ; as, Ibi 
Idci, In that place. Plin. Abes longe gentium. Cic. So, minime gentium, By no 
means. Ter. Vh'inue in the genitive is used by the comic writers after hie and 
hue ; as, Hie proximo? viclniai. Plaut. Hue vu'miai. Ter. Cf. § 221, R. 3, (4.) 

Note 3. Hue, eo, quo, when used figuratively to express a degree, are joined 
also with other genitives; as, Eo insolentiaj f iirorisywe prdcessit, He advanced 
to such a degree of insolence and madness. Plin. Hue enim malorum ventum 
est. Curt. Iluccine rerum venimus? Have we come to this? Pers. Eo miseria- 
rum venire, To such a pitch of misery. Sail. Quo amentia? prdgressi sitis. Liv. 

Note 4. The genitives ldci, Idcorum, and tempdris, appear to be redundant 
after the adverbs adhuc, inde, interea, postea, turn, and tunc, in expressions de- 
noting time ; as, Adhuc Idcorum, Till now. Plaut. Inde ldci, After that. Lucr. 
Interea ldci, In the mean time. Ter. Postea ldci, Afterwards. Sail. Turn tem- 
pdris, and tunc tempdris. At that time. Just. Ldcorum also occurs after id, 
denoting time; as, Adidlocorum, Up to that time. Sail. Cf. R. 3. 

Note 5. When the genitive ejus occurs after quoad, in such connections as 
the following: Quoad ejusfdeere pdteris. Cic; or passively. Quoad ejus fieri 
possit, As far as may be. Cic. ; the ejus refers to the preceding clause; literally, 
as much of it as possible. 



214 SYNTAX. — GENITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. § 213. 

Note 6. Pridie and postrldie, though reckoned adverbs, are followed by a 
genitive, depending on the noun dies contained in them ; as, Pridie ejus diei, 
lit. On the day before that day, i. e. The dav before. Cic. Pridie insididrum, 
The day before the ambush. Tac. Postrldie ejus diei, The next day. Caes. 
When they are followed by an accusative, ante or post is understood. Cf. 
§ 238, 1, (b.) 

Note 7. Adverbs in the superlative degree, like their adjectives, are follow- 
ed by a genitive ; as, Optime omnium, Best of all. Cic. 

GENITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 

§ ££13. A noun, limiting the meaning of an adjective, is put 
in the objective genitive, to denote the relation expressed in 
English by of, in, or in respect to ; as, 

Amdus laudis, Desirous of praise. Plena timoris, Full of fear. 

Appetens gloria?, Eager for glory. Egenus aquae, Destitute of water. 

M emor virtutis, Mindful of virtue. Dootus fandi, Skilful in speaking. 
So, Nescia mens f ati, The mind ignorant in regard to fate. Virg. Impdtens 
iras, lit. Powerless in respect to anger, i. e. unable to control it. Liv. Homines 
expertes veritatis, Men destitute of truth. Cic. Lactis abundans, Abounding 
in milk. Virg. Terra ferax arborum, Land productive of trees. Plin. Tenax 
propositi vir, A man tenacious of his purpose. Hor. ^Eger animi, Sick in mind. 
Liv. Ldcus medius jtiguli summlque lacerti, i. e. between. Ovid. Mdrum di- 
versus. Tac. Operum solutus. Hor. Liber labor'um. Id. Integer vitae scelerisjwe 
purus, Upright in life, and free from wickedness. Hor. Vlni pollens Liber. Plaut. 

From the above examples, it will be seen that the genitive after an adjective is some- 
times translated by other words besides of, in, or in respect to, though the relation which 
it denotes remains the same. Cf. 211, R. 12. 

Remark 1. The following classes of adjectives, which, as denoting a relation 
to a thing, are called relative adjectives (§ 104, 13), are frequently limited by a 
genitive; viz. (1.) Verbals in ax; as, cdpax, edax, ferax, fugax, pervicax, 
tenax, etc. — (2.) P articipials in ns, and a few in tus, with their com- 
pounds; as, dmans, appetens, cupiens, efflciens, pdtiens, impdtiens, sitiens; — con- 
sultus, doctus, solutus. — (3.) Adjectives denoting desire or aversion; as, 
dvdrus, dvidus, cupidus, studiosus ; fasildiosus : — p articipation; as, particeps, 
afflnis, consors, exsors, expers, inops : — k nowledg e, e xp erience , c ap ac- 
ity , and their contraries ; as, callidus, compos, conscius, gndrus, igndrus, peri- 
tus, imperitus, impos, pdtens, impdtens, prudens, imprudens, expertus, inexpertus, 
conscius, inscius, nescius, insolens, insdlitus, insuetus, rudis, sollers : — m e m ory 
&n&forgetfulness; as, memor, vnmemor, etc.: — certainty and doubt; 
as, certus, incertus, ambiguus, dubius, suspensus : — care and negligence; as, 
anxius, sollicitus, pr dvidus, improvidus, securus :—fear and confidence; 
as, pdvidus, timidus, trejndus, impdvidus, fldens, interrttus: — guilt and inno- 
cence; as, noxius, reus, suspectus, compertus, mdnifestus, innoxius, innocens, 
insons:— plenty and want; as, abundans, plenus, dives, sdtus, largus, inops, 
igenus, indnis, pauper, parens, solutus, vacuus. 

(a.) In the poets and later prose writers, many other adjectives, particularly 
those which express mental emotions, are in like manner limited by a genitive, 
• "specially by animi, ingenii, mentis, Irai, militias, belli, laboris, rerum, ami, futuri, 
. yrum, and fidei. 

Rem. 2. The limiting genitive, by a Greek construction, sometimes denotes 
a cause or source, especially in the poets; as, Lassus maris, et viarum, militire- 
que. Hor. Fessus vias. Stat. Fessus ?)idris. Hor. Attonitus serpentis. Sil. Mens 
tnterrita leti. Ovid. 

Rem. 3. Participles in ns, when zised as such, take after them the same case 
as the verbs from which they are derived ; as, Se dmans, Loving himself. Cic 
Mare terram appetens. Id. 



§ 213. SYNTAX. — GENITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 215 

Rem. 4. Instead of the genitive, denoting of, in, or in respect to, a 
different construction is sometimes used after many of these adjec- 
tives; as, 

(1.) An infinitive or a subjunctive clause ; as, Cerlus Tre, Determined to go. 
Ovid. Cantare periti. Virg. Felicior unguere tela. Id. Anxius quid facto 
opus sit. Sail. Vive memor quam sis revi brevis. Hor. — So dlienus, dvidus, 
cal/idus, cupidus, Jirmus, frequens, gndrus, impotens, inops, Umtus, largus, liber, 
jxillens, memor, dubius, etc. 

(2.) An accusative with a preposition; as, Ad rem dvidior. Ter. Avidus in 
direptiones. Liv. Animus cdpax ad prascepta. Ovid. Ad casum fortunamjwe 
felix. Cic. Ad fraudem callidus. Id. Dili gens ad custodiendum. Id. Negli- 
gentior in patrem. Just. Vir ad disciplinam peritus. Cic. Ad bella rudis. Liv. 
Patens in res bellicas. Id. Aldcer ad maleflcia. Cic. Inter bellum et pacem 
nihil medium est. Id. — So with ad, fertilis, jirmus, infrmus, pdtens, sterilis, etc. — 
with in, cupidus, parous, pdtens, prodigus, etc. 

(3.) An accusative without a preposition, chiefly in the poets; as, Nudus 
membra, Bare as to his limbs. Vug. Os, humeros^we deo similis Id. Cetera 
fulvus. Hor. Cuncta pollens. Sen. Ag. See § 234, II. 

(4.) An ablative with a preposition; as, Avidus in pecuniis, Eager in re- 
gard to money. Cic. Anxius de fama. Quint. Rudis in jure civili. Cic. Peri- 
tus de agricultural Varr. Prudens in jure civili. Cic. Reus de vi. Id. Purus 
ab cultu h fund-no. Liv. Certior j 'actus de re. Cic. Sollicitus de re. Id. Super 
scelere svspectus. Sail. Inops ab amicis. Cic. Pauper in aire. Hor. Modicus 
in cultu. Plin. Ab aquis sterilis. Apul. Copiosus a frumento. Cic. Ab equitatu 
Jirmus. Id. So with in, immodicus, parens, fiber: — with ab, dlienus, bedtus, ex- 
turn's, immunis, inops, liber, nudus, orbus, vacuus. 

(5.) An ablative without a preposition ; as, Arte rudis, Rude in art. Ovid. 
Regni crimine insons. Liv. Compos mente. Virg. Prudens consilio. Just. JEger 
pt'dlbus. Sail. Prcestans ingenio. Cic. Modicus severitate. Tac. Nihil insi- 
diis vacuum. Cic. Amor et melle et telle est fecundissimus. Plaut. Medius Pol- 
luce et Castore. Ovid. Cf. Kern. 5. 

In many instances, the signification of the accusative and ablative after adjectives dif- 
fers, in a greater or less degree, from that of the genitive. 

Rem. 5. As many of the adjectives, which are followed hy a genitive, admit of other 
constructions, the most common use of each, -with particular nouns, can, in general, be 
determined only by recourse to the dictionary, or to the classics. Some have, 

(1.) The genitive only; as, benignus, cdpax, exsors, impos, impotens, insdlid- 
bilis, irritus, liberdlis, modicus, munificus, proilargus, and many others. 

(2.) The genitive more frequently; as, compos, consors, egenus, exheres, 
exepers, fertilis, indigus, inops, parens, particeps, pauper, prbdigus, prosper, 
sterilis. 

(3.) The genitive or ablative indifferently ; as, dives, fecundus, ferax, im- 
munis, indnis, immodicus, jfjunus, largus, nlmius, opfdentus, peritus, plenus, pd- 
tens, purus, refertus, sdtur, fiber, vacuus. 

(4.) The ablative more frequently; as, abandons, dlienus, cassus, copiosus, 
extorris, firm/us, fetm, frequens, grdridus, gravis, infrmus, liber, locuples, keius, 
functus, nudus, onuslus, orbus, pollens, sdtidtus, truncus, vdlidus, viduus. 

(5.) The ablative only; as, bedtus, creber, densus, mutilus, tumidus, turgidus. 

For the ablative after many of the preceding adjectives, see § 250. 

Rem. 6. Some adjectives usually limited by a dative, sometimes take a gen- 
itive instead of the dative ; as, similis, dissimills, etc. See § 222, R. 2. 

Rem. 7. Many adjectives in addition to the genitive or ablative denoting of 
or in respect to, take also another case to express a different relation ; as, Mens 
Bibi conscia recti. Cf. § 222, R. 3. Conscius has also sometimes the dative in- 
stead of the genitive of the thing; as, conscius huic f acinori. Cic. 



216 SYNTAX.— GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. § 214. 



GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. 

§ 214. Sum, and verbs of valuing, are followed by a geni- 
tive, denoting degree of estimation ; as, 

A me argentum, quanti est, sumito, Take of me so much money as (he) is 
■worth. Ter. Magni cestimdbat pecuniam, He valued money greatly. Cic. Ager 
nunc pluris est, quam tunc fuit. Id. Tanti est, It is worth so much ; and, abso- 
lutely, It is worth while. Cic. Hujus non facio, I don't care that for it. 

Remark 1. (a.) Verbs of valuing are joined with the genitive, 
when the value is expressed in a general or indefinite manner by : — 

(1.) A neuter adjective of quantity; as, tanti, quanti, pluris, mindris, magni, 
permagni, plurimi, maximi, minimi, parvi, tantldem, quanticumque, quantivis, 
quantiUbel, but only very rarely multi and mdjoris. 

(2.) The nouns assis, fiocci, nauci, nihili, pili, teruncii, and also pensi and 



(&.) But if the price or value of a thing is a definite sum, or is ex- 
pressed by a substantive, other than assis, fiocci, etc., it is put in the 
ablative. Cf. § 252. 

Rem. 2. The verbs of valuing are cestimo, existimo, duco, facio, flo, habeo, 
pendo, puto, depute-, taxo. Thus, Ut quanti quisque se ipse fdciat, tanti flat ab 
dmlcis, That as much as each one values himself, so much he should be valued 
by his friends. Cic. Sed quia parvi id duceret. Id. Honor es si magni non pute- 
mus. Id. Non assis fads ? Catull. Neque quod dixi, fiocci exisiimat. Plaut. 

Note 1. (a.) The phrase o3qui boni, or mqui bonique facio, or consulo, I take 
a thing in good part, am satisfied with it, may be classed with genitives of value ; 
as, Nos sequi bomque fdcimus. Liv. So, Boni consuluit Plin. — {b.) A genitive 
of price is joined also to camo, hdbito, ddceo, etc.; as, quanti hdbitas? what rent 
do you pay for your house or lodging ? quanti docett what are his terms in 
teaching? 

Note 2. After o3stimo, the ablatives magno, permagno, parvo, nihilo, are 
sometimes used instead of the genitive; as, Data magno cestimas, accepta 
parvo. Sen. Pro nihilo, also, occurs after duco, habeo, and puto ; and nihil with 
cestimo and mdror. Cf. § 231, R. 5. 

Note 3. The neuter adjectives above enumerated, and hujus, may be refer- 
red to a noun understood, as pretii, wris, ponderis, momenti ; and may be con- 
sidered as limiting a preceding noun, also understood, and denoting some per- 
son or thing ; as, JEstimo te magni, i. e. hominem magni pretii. Scio ejus ordinis 
aucioritatem semper apud te magni fuisse, i. e. rem magni momenti. The woi'ds 
assis, etc., may also be considered as depending on an omitted noun; as, pretio, 
rem, etc. 

Rem. 3. Statements of price, also, when general or indefinite, are 
put in the genitive after verbs of buying, selling, letting, and hiring ; 
as, 

Mercatores non tantldem vendunt, quanti emerunt. Cic. Nulla pestis humano 
generi pluris stetit, quam ira. Sen. 

Note 1. Verbs of buying, selling, etc., are emo, vendo, the neutral passive, 
veneo, consto, prosto, and liceo, to be exposed for sale. 

Note 2. With verbs of buying, selling, etc., the ablatives magno, permagno, 
plurimo, parvo, minimo, and nihilo are often used instead of the genitive ; as, 
Non pdtest parvo res magna constdre^ Sen. Quanti entire possum minimo ? What 
is_ the lowest price I can buy at? Plaut. Sometimes also the adverbs care, 
bene, and male take the place of the genitive or ablative of price. 



§215,216. SYNTAX. — GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. 217 

§ 21«>. (1.) Misereor, miseresco, and the impersonals mise- 
ret, poenitet, pitdet, tcedet, and piget, are followed by a genitive 
of the object in respect to which the feeling is exercised ; as, 

MiseremLni sdcidrum, Pity the allies. Cic. Miserescite regis, Pity the king. 
Virg. Me a mater, tui me miseret, raei piget, I pity you, and am dissatisfied 
■with myself. Ace. Eos ineiptiTxr\im w pozriitet. Cic. Bratris me pudei pigetque. 
Ter. Me chitutis morum piget Uzdetque. Sail. So the compound distcedet; Hand 
quod tui me, neque dorni distcedeat. Plaut. ; and the passive; Numquam suscepti 
negotii eum pertcesum est. Nep. Lentitudinis eorum pertmsa. Tac. Miseri- 
tum est me tudrum fortunarum. Ter. Cave te fratrum miseredtur. Cic. Pudet 
{me) deorum homlnumque, I am filled with shame in reference both to gods 
and men. Liv. 

Nona 1. Miserescit is sometimes used in the same manner as miseret ; as, 
Nunc te miserescat mei. Ter. Misereo, as a personal verb, also, occurs with a 
genitive ; as, Ipse sui miseret. Lucr. 

Remark. The genitive after the above impersonals seems to depend on some 
general word constituting the grammatical subject of such verbs, and signify- 
ing, matter, business, fact, case, circumstances, conduct, character, etc., cf § 211, 
Pi. 8, (3); and § 209, 'R. 3, (4.) Instead of the genitive with its omitted noun, 
an infinitive or clause with quod or with an interrogative particle is sometimes 
used as a subject; as, Non me hoc jam die ere pudebit. Cic. Non poznxtet me 
quantum prof ecerim, I am not dissatisfied with my progress. Id. These verbs 
have also sometimes a nominative ; as, Me quidem hcec conditio non pcenitet. 
Plaut. Non te hsec piidentt Ter. 

N< »tk 2. Miseret occurs with an accusative of the object, instead of a geni- 
tive ; as, Menedemi vicem miseret me. Ter. So, also, Pertcesus ignaviam suam. 
Suet. 

Note 3. (a.) These impersonals, as active verbs, take also an accusative of 
the person exercising the feeling which they express. See § 229, R. 6. — 
(b.) And sometimes also the accusative of the neuter pronouns and of nihil, 
denoting to what degree the feelings are exercised; as, Sequitur ut nihil (sapien- 
tem,) prenileat. Cic. Cf. § 232, (3.) 

(2.) Satdgo is sometimes followed by a genitive denoting in 

what respect ; as, 

Is satagil reram sudrum, He is busily occupied with his own affairs. Ter. 
This compound is often written separately, and in either case the genitive 
seems to depend upon sat. See § 212, R. 4. Agito, with sat, in like manner, is 
followed by a genitive; as, Nunc dgitas sat tide tudrum reram. Plaut. 

§ 2AG. Recordor, memini, reminiscor, and obliviscor, are 
followed by a genitive or accusative of the object remembered 
or forgotten ; as, 

Flagltiorum sudrum recorddbitur. Cic. Omnes grtidus cetdtis recordor luce, 
I call to mind all the periods of your life. Id. Memini vlvorum, I am mindful 
of the living. Id. Niimeros memini, I remember the measure. Virg. Reminisci 
vetcris f am*. Nep. Dukes muriens reminiscitur Argos. Virg. Reminisci ami- 
cos. Ovid. Oblitus sui. Virg. Inju.ria.rum obliciscitur. Nep. Obliviscor injurias. 
Cic. ObUmscere Graios. Virg. 

Remark 1. (a.) When the thing remembered or forgotten is expressed by 
a neuter pronoun or adjective, it is always put in the accusative. An accusa- 
tive of the person with these verbs is unusual, except that memini, when re- 
ferring to a contemporary, always takes an accusative of the person ; as, Cin- 
nam memini. Cic. 

19 



218 SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. § 217. 

(b.) An infinitive or a dependent clause sometimes follows these verbs; as, 
Memento mihi suppetias ferre. Plant. Esse qudque infdtis reminiscitur, affore 
tempus, quo mare, etc. Ovid. Obllti quid deceat. Hor. Memini te scribere. 
Cic. Quae sum passiira recordor. Ovid. 

Rem. 2. Recordor and memini, to remember, are sometimes followed by an 
ablative with de ; as, Petimus ut de suis liberis recordentur. Cic. Be palla me- 
mento. Plaut. 

Rem. 3. Memini, signifying to make mention of, has a genitive, or an abla- 
tive with de ; as, Neque hujus rei meminit.poeta. Quint. M eministi de exsuli- 
bus. Cic. With venit mihi in mentem, the person or thing may be made the 
subject of venit; as, Miseraz ubi venit in mentem mortis metus. Plaut. Venit hoc 
mild in mentem ; or an infinitive or subjunctive clause may supply the place 
of the subject: — for the genitive with this phrase, as in Solet mini in mentem 
venire illius tempdris, see | 211, R. 8, (5.) The genitive with recordor is very 
rare. 

§ 21T. Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, and ac- 
quitting, with the accusative of the person, are followed by a 
genitive denoting the crime ; as, 

Arguit me furti, He charges me with theft. Alterum accusal probri, He ac- 
cuses another ofvillany. Meipsum inertias condemno. Cic. 

Remark 1. (a.) To this rule belong the verbs of 

Accusing; accuso, ago, arcesso, arguo, cito, defero, increpo, incuso, insimulo, 
postulo, and more rarely alligo, anquiro, astringo, capto, increpito, urgeo, inter- 
rdgo, reum ago or facio, alicui diem dico, cum dliquo ago. — C onvicting ; con- 
vinco, coarguo, prehendo, teneor, obstringor, obligor.— C ondemning ; damno, con- 
demno, infdmo, and more rarely judico, ndto, plector. — A c q u i 1 1 i n g ; ab&olvo, 
libero, pur go, and rarely solvo. To the verbs of accusing, etc., may be added 
the adjectives denoting guilt and innocence, which likewise take a genitive. 
Cf. § 213, R. 1, (3.) 

(b.) The genitives which follow these verbs are, audacice, dvaritice, cadis, 
falsi, furti, iqndviai, impietdtis, injuridrum, levitdtis, mdjestdtis, mdleficii, mendd- 
cii, parricidii, peccdti, peculdtiis, probri, proditionis, rei capitalist repetunddrum, 
sceleris, stultitiaz, temeritdtis, timdris, vdnitdtis, veneficii, etc. 

Rem. 2. (a.) Instead of the genitive, an ablative with de is often used after 
accuso, defero, anquiro, arguo, postulo, damno, condemno, absolvo, and pur go ; as, 
Accusdre de negligentia. Cic. De vi condemndti sunt. Id. De repetundis est 
postuldtus. Id. Sometimes with in, after accuso, coarguo, convinco, teneor, and 
deprehendor; as, In quo te accuso (Cic); and after libero, with a or ab ; as, 
A scelere liberdti sumus. Cic. Accuso and damno with inter occur in the 
phrases inter sicdrios accusdre, etc., to charge with assassination. 

(b.) With some of the above verbs, an ablative without a preposition is often 
used; as, Liberdre culpa. Cic. Crimen quo argui posset. Nep. Proconsuleni 
postuldverat repetundis. Tac. This happens especially with general words de- 
noting crime; as, scelus, mdUficium, peccdtum, etc.; as, Me peccato solvo. Liv. 
The ablatives crimine and nomine, without a preposition, are often inserted be- 
fore the genitive; as, Arcessere dliquem crimine ambitus. Liv. Ndmine sceleris 
conjurationisque damndti. Cic. ; and when not so inserted they are to be under- 
stood. 

(c.) Sometimes a clause takes the place of the genitive; as, Eum accusdbant 
quod societatem fecisset. Nep. So the infinitive with the accusative. Quid f 
quod me — arguit serum accessisse ? Ovid. 

Rem. 3. (a.) The punishment is commonly expressed by the genitive; as, 
capitis, mortis, multai, pecuniae, quadrupli, octupli ; but sometimes by the abla- 
tive; as, cdpite, morte, multd, pecunia: and always by this case when a definite 
sum is mentioned; as, quindedm mlllibus air in : or the accusative with ad or in; 



f 



§ 218, 219. SYNTAX. — GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. 219 

a?, ad paenam, ad bestias, ad metalla, in metallum, in expensas ; — sometimes, 
though rarely, in the poets, by the dative; as, Damndlus morti. Lucr. — 
(b.) Voti or votarum, and less frequently roto or votis damndri, signifies 'to be 
condemned to fulfil one's vow,' and is' consequently equivalent to ' to obtain 
what one wishes.' So also in Attractive voice, Damndbis tu qudque votis. Virg. 
Perdo is used by Plautus as a verb of accusing, with capitis; Quern ego capitis 
dam, will charge with a capital offence. So cdpite or capitis periclltari, 
Maut., signifies 'to be in peril of one's life.' With p>lecto and plector, caput is 
used in the ablative only. — (c. ) Damni infecti is put in the genitive (depend- 
ing upon nomine understood) after sdtisdo, prdmitto, stipulart, repromitto, and 
cdveo ; as, Si quis in pdriete demdliendo damni infecti promiserit. Cic. 

Rem. 4. Accuso, incuso, and insimulo, instead of the genitive, sometimes take 
the accusative, especially of a neuter pronoun; as, Si id me non accusas. Plaut. 
Qua? me incusdceras. Ter. Sic me insimuldre falsum f acinus. Plant. See § 231, 
Rem. 5. 

Rem. 5. (a.) The following verbs of accusing, etc., are not followed by a 
genitive of the crime, but, as active verbs, by an accusative: — cdlumnior, carpo, 
corripio, criminor, cidpo, excuso, multo, punio, reprehendo, sugillo, taxo, trdduco, 
vitupero ; as, Culpdre infecunaitdtem agrorum. Colum. Excusdre errorem et 
dddlescentiam. Liv. 

(b.) This construction also sometimes occurs with accuso, incuso, arguo, and 
inarguo; as, Ejus dvdritiam perfidiamque accusdrat. Nep. Culpam arguo. Liv. 
With multo, the punishment is put in the ablative only, without a preposition; 
as, Exsiliis, morte multantur. Cic. 

§ 218. Verbs of admonishing, with the accusative of the 
person, are followed by a genitive of the person or thing respect- 
ing which the admonition is given ; as, 

Milites temporis mdnet, He admonishes the soldiers of the occasion. Tac. 
Admdncbat dlium egestatis, dlium cupiditatis sum. Sail. 

Note. The verbs of admonishing are mdneo, admdneo, commdneo, and commd- 
nefdcio. 

Remark 1. Instead of the genitive, verbs of admonishing sometimes have 
an ablative with de ; as, De aide Telluris me admdnes. Cic. — sometimes an ac- 
cusative of a pronoun or adjective in the neuter gender; as, Eos hoc moneo Cic. 
Illud me admdneo. Id. ; and in the passive, Multa admdnemur. Id. — rarely also 
a noun in the accusative ; as, Earn rem nos I6cus admdnuit. Sail. 

Rem. 2. Instead of the genitive, vei"bs of admonishing are also often followed 
by an infinitive or clause; as, Sdror alma mdnet succedere Lauso Turnum, His 
sister admonishes Turnus to take the place of Lausus. Virg. Monet, ut suspic- 
iones vltet. Ca;s. Sed-eos hoc moneo, desinant furere. Cic. Mdnet rationem fru- 
menti esse habendum. Hirt. Immortalia ne speres mdnet annus. Hor. Discipulos 
id unum mdneo, ut, etc. Quint. Mdneo quid facto opus sit. Ter. See § 273, 2. 

§ 219. Refert and interest are followed by a genitive of the 
person or thing whose concern or interest they denote ; as, 

Humdnitdtis refert, It concerns human nature. Plin. Refert omnium dnt- 
madcerti in mdlos. Tac. Interest omnium recte fdcere, It concerns all to do 
right. Cic. 

Remark 1. Instead of the genitive of the substantive pronouns, 
the adjective pronouns mea, tua, sua, nostra, and vestra, are used; as, 

Mea nihil refert. It does not concern me. Ter. Illud mea magni interest, 
That greatly concerns me. Cic. Tua et mea maxime interest, te vdlere. Cic. 
Mdgis reipublicae interest quam mea. Id. Magni interest Ciceronis, vel mea 
pdtius, vel mehercule utriusque, me intervenire dicenti. Id. 



220 SYNTAX. — GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. § 220. 

Note. Refert rarely occurs with the genitive, but often with the pronouns 
mea, tua, etc., and most frequently without either such pronoun or a genitive ; 
as, quid refert f magni or magnbpere refert. 

Eem. 2. In regard to the case of these adjective pronouns, grammarians dif- 
fer. Some suppose that they are in the accusative plural neuter, agreeing 
with commdda or the like understood ; as, Interest mea, i. e. est inter mea, It 
is among my concerns. Refert tua, i. e. refert se ad tua, It refers itself to 
your concerns. Others think that they are in the ablative singular femi- 
nine, agreeing with re, causa, etc., understood, or in the dative. The better 
opinion seems to be, that they are in the accusative feminine for meam, iuam, 
suam, etc., that refert was originally rem fert, and that hence the e of r'efert 
is long. 

Eem. 3. Instead of the genitive, an accusative with ad is sometimes used ; 
as, Ad honorem meum interest quam primum urbem me venire. Cic. Quid id ad 
me aut ad meam rem refert. Plaut. — sometimes, though rarely, an accusative 
without a preposition ; as, Quidte igitur retulit? Plaut — or a dative; as, Die 
quid referat intra natural fines vlventi. Hor. 

Eem. 4. The subject of these verbs, or the thing which is of interest or im- 
portance, is sometimes expressed by a neuter pronoun; as, Id mea minime 
refert. Ter. Hoc vehementer interest reipublicce. Cic. ; and sometimes by an in- 
finitive with its accusative, or ut, or an interrogative particle with a sub- 
junctive clause ; as, multum mea interest te esse diligentem, or ut dlligens sis, 
or utrum dlligens sis nee we. When the infinitive alone is used with refert 
or interest, the preceding subject is understood; as, omnium interest recte fd- 
cire, scil. se. 

Eem. 5. The degree of interest or importance is expressed by adverbs or by 
neuter adjectives, etc., in the accusative or genitive; as, magis, magnopere, ve- 
hementer, pdrum, minime, etc.; multum, plus, plurimum, nihil, dliquid, etc; 
tanti, quanti, magni, permagni, pluris. But minimo discrinrine refert is found 
in Juv. 5, 123. 

§ S30. Many verbs which are usually otherwise construed, 
are sometimes followed by a genitive. This rule includes 

1. Certain verbs denoting an affection of the mind ; ango, discrueior, excru- 
cio, folio, pendeo, which are followed by dnimi ; decipior, desipio, fallor, fastldio, 
inviaeo, mlror, vereor ; as, Absurde fdcis, qui angas te anlmi. Plaut. Me animi 
fallit. Lucr. Decipitur laborum. Hor. J)esipiebam mentis. Plaut. Justititene 
prius mlrer belllne laborum. Virg. 

2. The following, in imitation of the Greek idiom; abstineo, desino, jyurgo. 
Hor. ; desisto. Virg. ; laudo, prdhibeo. Sil. ; levo, parUdpo. Plaut. ; libero. Liv. ; 
dissolvo. Tibull. : compare liber laborum ; operum vacuus ; purus sceleris. §213. 

3. Some verbs denoting to fill, to abound, to want or need, to free, which are 
commonly followed by an ablative. Such are dbundo, cdreo, eompleo, expleo, 
impleo, egeo, indigeo, sdturo, obsdturo, sedteo ; as, Addlescentem sim temeritfitis 
implet, He fills the youth with his own rashness. Liv. Animum explesse flam- 
map. Virg. Egeo consllii. Cic. Non tarn artis indigent quam labbris. Id. See 
$$ 249 and 250, (2.) 

4. Pdtior, which also is usually followed by an ablative; as, Urbis pdtiri, 
To make oneself master of the city. Sail. Pdtiri regni ^Cic), hostium (Sail.), 
rerum, To make oneself master of the world. Cic. Pdtio (active) occurs in 
Plautus; as, Eum nunc pdtlvit servitutis, He has made him partaker of slavery. 
In the same writer, pdtttus est hostium signifies, ' he fell into the hands of the 
enemy.' So^ also, Aliquem compdtlre prtedse or voti. App. So, Eerum ddeptus 
est. Tac. Domlnationis dpisci. Id. JUcgndvit populorum. Hor. 



, 



§ 221. SYNTAX. — GENITIVE OF PLACE. 221 

GENITIVE OF PLACE. 

§ 221. 1. The name of a town in which any thing is said 
to be, or to be done, if of the first or second declension and sin- 
gular number, is put in the genitive ; as, 

Habitat Mileti, He lives at Miletus. Ter. Quid Romoz fdciaml What can I 
do at Rome V Juv. Hercules Tyri maxime cdlitur. Cic. 

Note. For the construction of nouns of the third declension or plural num- 
ber, see § 254. The following appears to be the best explanation that has 
been given of this diversity of construction, depending solely on the number 
or declension of the noun. The name of the town ' where ' or ' in which ' is 
probably neither in the genitive nor the ablative, but always, as in Greek, in the 
dative. Since the genitive and dative are alike in the singular of the first de- 
clension and the dative and ablative plural are the same in all declensions, 
such examples as Romce and Athenis present no difficulty. In the third de- 
clension the dative and ablative singular were anciently alike, and in such ab- 
latives as AnxCui, Carthdyini, Ldcedcemdni, the old form remains, see § 82, 
Exc. 5, (c.) In the second declension there was an old dative in oi, as in Greek, 
which was commonly changed to o, but sometimes to i: and the latter is still 
found in nulli, uni, etc., see § 107, and in the adjective pronouns; as, illi, etc. 

Rkmabk 1. Names of islands and countries are sometimes put in the geni- 
tive, like names of towns ; as, Iihdcm vivere, To live in Ithaca. Cic. Corcyra 
/nanus. Id. Conon plurimum Cypri vixit, Timotheus Lesbi. Nep. Quum Miltiddes 
ddmum Chersonesi habuit. Id. Cretce jussit considere Apollo. Virg. Romce Numid- 
ueque fdcindra ejus memdrat. Sail. 

Rem. 2. (a.) Instead of the genitive, the ablative cf names of towns of the 
fir>t and second declension and singular number, is sometimes, though rarely, 
used; as. Rex Tyro decedit, The king dies at Tyre. Just. Et C6rinthoe< Athenis 
et Ldcedcemdne niAicidta est victoria. Id. Pons quern Me Abydo fecerat. Id. 
Ilujus exemplar Roma nullum hdbemus. Vitruv. Non Libyai, ' non ante Tyro. 
Virg. For the explanation of this apparent anomaly, see the preceding note; 
in accordance with which it may be remarked, that the adverbs of place, ubi, 
ibi, ibidem, alibi, dlicubi, hie, illic, istiOf etc., appear from their form to be ancient 
datives. — {b.) When the noun is qualified by an adjective, it is put, not in the 
genitive, but in the ablative with in; as, In ipsa Alexandria. Cic. And poeti- 
cally without in, Genus Longd nostrum ddmindbitur Alba. Virg. — (c.) When 
urbs, oppidum, Idcus, etc., follow the genitive of place as appositions, they are 
put in the ablative either with, or, more rarely, without, in ; as, Archias Aniid- 
chice ndtus est, celebri quondam urbe. Cic. Cives Romdnos Nedpdli, in cele- 
benimo oppldo scepe vidimus. Id. But when in urbe, etc., precede the name of 
a town, the latter also is put in the ablative ; as, In opjjido Citio. Nep. ; and 
but very rarely in the genitive ; as, Cassius in oppido Antiochias est, — in the 
town of Antioch. Cic, where the genitive depends on oppido. 

Rem. 3. The genitives domi, militice, belli, and humi, are construed 
like names of towns ; as, 

Tenuit se domi, He staid at home. Cic. Vir domi cldrus. Liv. Spargit humi 
jussos dentes, — on the ground. Ovid. M'ditiai and belli are thus used, especially 
when opposed to ddmi; as, Una semper militias et domi fuimus, — both at home 
and in the camp. Ter. So D6mi miUtiozque. Cic. Et domi et militias. Id. Militice 
dumique. Liv. Militixe et ddmi. Ter. Belli domique, in war and in peace. Hor. 

(1.) Ddmi is thus used with the possessives mea, tuce, sua, nostras, vesirm, 
and dlieiUB ; as, Domi nostrae vixit, He lived at my house. Cic. Apud eum sic 
fui tamquam meae domi. Id. Sacrificium, quod alienas domi Jieret invxshe. Id. 
But with other adjectives, an ablative, generally with a preposition, is used; as, 
In vidua ddmo. Ovid. Pdternd domo. Id. Sometimes also with the possessives ; 
as, Med in ddmo. Hor. In ddmo sua. Nep. So, instead ofMmi, 1 upon the ground,' 
19* 



222 SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. § 222. 

Mmo is sometimes tised, with or without a preposition ; as, In Mmo drenosd. 
Ovid. Sedere humo nudd. Id. 

(2.) When a genitive denoting the possessor follows, either domi or in d6mo 
is used; as, Deprehensus domi Casdris. Cic. Domi illius fuisti. Id. In domo 
Casdris. Id. In domo ejus. Nep. 

(3.) The ablative domo for domi also occurs, but not in Cicero; as, Ego id 
nunc experior domo. Plaut. Domo se tenere. Nep. Domo abditus. Suet. 
Bello for belli is found in Livy — Domi belloque. So, also, Mmo for Mmi ; Stratus 
Mmo. Stat. Flgit humo plantas. Virg. : and in humo lumen flgit. Ovid. 

(4.) Terrce is sometimes used like Mmi; as, Sacra terra? celdvimus. Liv. 
Projectus terras. Virg. Jgnes terra, condit. Luc. So, also, arena; Truncum 
rellquit arenas. Virg..: and viclnioe ; Proximal vlciniae habitat. Plaut. 

(5.) The genitive of names of towns, d&mi, militia, etc., is supposed by some 
to depend on a noun understood ; as, urbe, oppido, adibus, solo, Idco, tempore, 
etc., but see a different explanation above in Note. 

GENITIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 

LT. Certain adverbs are followed by the genitive. See § 212, R. 4. 

HT. The genitive plural sometimes depends on the preposition 
tenus; as, 

Cumdrum tenus, As far as Cumse. Coal. Qrurum tenus. Virg. Ldt&rum Vi- 
llus. Id. Urbium Corcyra tenus. Liv. — For the ablative after tenus, and for the 
place of the preposition, see § 241, and R. 1. 

DATIVE. 

§ 2255. 1. The dative is the case of reference, as it denotes 
the object with reference to which the subject acts, or in reference to 
which it possesses any specified quality ; or, in other words, the ob- 
ject for which, to the benefit or loss of which, any thing is or is done. 
Hence, in distinction from the dative of the end (§227) the dative of 
reference is called dativus commodi et incommodi, the dative of ad- 
vantage and disadvantage ; as, 

Scrlbo vobis hunc librum, I write thi3 book for you. Prosum tlbi, or Tibi 
utilis sum, I am useful to you. 

2. Hence the dative of advantage and disadvantage may be used 

(a) with adjectives and particles whose meaning' is incomplete unless 
the object is mentioned in reference to which the quality exists. 

(b) With verbs both transitive and intransitive. If transitive they 
take an accusative of the nearer and a dative of the remoter object, 
if intransitive they take a dative only, (c) With certain verbs com- 
pounded with prepositions, after which the dative is used instead of 
the case which the preposition, if separate, would govern, (d) After 
a few verbal substantives derived from verbs which govern a dative. 

DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 

3. A noun limiting the meaning of an adjective, is put 
in the dative, to denote the object to which the quality is di- 
rected ; as, 



§ 222. SYNTAX* — DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 223 

Utilis agris, Useful to the fields Juv. Jucundus dmicis, Agreeable to his 
friends. Mart. Inimicus quieii, Unfriendly to rest. Id. Charta inutilis scribendo, 
Paper not useful for writing. Plin. 

Notb. The datiTC is commonly translated by the prepositions to or for ; but some- 
times by other prepositions, or without a preposition. 

Remark 1. Adjectives signifying useful, pleasant, friendly, fit, 
like, inclined, ready, easy, clear, equal, and their opposites, also those 
signifying near, many compounded with con, and verbals in btlis, are 
followed by the dative ; as, 

Felix tuis, Propitious to your friends. Virg. Ordtio ingrdta Gallis, A speech 
displeasing to the Gauls. Caes. Amicus tyrannidi, Friendly to tyranny. Nep. 
Labori inhdbilis, Unsuited to labor. Colum. Patri similis, Like his father. Cic. 
Nihil tarn est Lysiae diversum, quam Isocrdtes. Aptum tempori. Id. Malo pro- 
nus. Sen. Promptus seditioni. Tac. Cuivis facile est. Ter. Mihi cerium est. 
Cic. Par fratri tuo. Id. Falsa veris finitima sunt. Id. Oculi concoldres corpori. 
Colum. Multis bonis jlebilis. Hor. Mors est terribilis iis, quorum, etc. Cic. 

(a.) The following are some of the adjectives included^ in Item. 1, viz. grdtus, 
acceptus, dulcis, jucundus, ketus, sudvis; ingrains, insudvis, injucundus, mdlestus, 
gravis, dcerbus, odiosus, tristis; — utilis, inutilis, bdnus, sdluber, sdlutdris, Jructuosus ; 
cdldmitdsus, damndsus, funestus, noxius, pestifer, pernicidsus, exitidsus: — amicus, 
benevdlus, edicts, fdmilidris, cequus, fidus, fidelis, prdpitius, secundus ; inimicus, 
adversus, osmulus, dlienus, eontrdrius, infestus, infidus, iniquus, irdtus ; — aptus, 
accom?ndddtus, appdsitus, hdbilis, idoneus, opportunus; ineptus, inhdbilis, impor- 
tunus, inconveniens ; — ozqudlis, par, impar, dispar, similis, dissimilis, absimilis, 
discdlor :— pronus, prdclivis, propensm, promptus, pdratus :—fdcilis, difficilis : — 
apertus, conspicuus, mdnifesius, perspicuus, obscurus, certus, compertus, notus, 
ambiguus, dubius, ignotus, incertus, insdlitus ; — victims, finitimus, confinis, con- 
ttrmiruts, prdpior, proximus, cogndtus, concdlor, concors, congruus, consanguineus, 
consentdneus, consdnus, conveniens, contiguus, continuus, continens. 

(b.) Many adjectives of other significations, including some compounds of 
ob, sub, and super, as obnoxius, obiius, subjectus, supplex, and superstes, are also 
followed by a dative of the object. 

(c.) After verbals in bills, the dative is usually rendered by the preposition 
by ; as, Tibi credibilis sermo, A speech credible to you, i. e. worthy to be be- 
lieved by you. Ovid. 

(d.) The expression dicto audiens, signifying obedient, is followed by the da- 
tive; as, Syracusdni nobis dicto audientes sunt. Cic. Audiens dicto fuit jussis 
mdgistratuum. Nep. In this phrase, dicto is a dative limiting audiens, and the 
words dicto audiens seem to form a compound equivalent to dbediens, and, like 
that, followed by a dative; thus, Nee plebs nobis ditto audiens atque dbediens 
sit. Liv. So dicto dbediens ; as, Futura es dicto dbediens, annon, patri V Plaut. 

Kem. 2. (a.) The adjectives aujudlis, affinis, dlienus, cogndminis, communis, 
eontrdrius, fidus, insw'tus, par, dispar, pceulidris, proprius, prdpinquus, sdcer, 
simrfis, assimilis, consimilis, dissimilis, sulcus, vicinus, siipersies, supplex, and some 
others, instead of a dative of the object, are sometimes followed by a genitive; 
as, Par hujus, Equal to him. Lucan. Proprium est oratoris ornate dicere. Cic. 
But most of these words, when thus used, seem rather to be taken substan- 
tively; as, JEqudlis ejus, His contemporary. Cic. 

(6.) Similis, assimilis, consimdis, dissimilis, par and dispar, take the genitive, 
when an internal resemblance, or a resemblance in character or disposition, is 
to be expressed, and hence we always find mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, similis', 
as, Places reges Romuli quam Numre similes. Liv. 

(c.) Amicus, inimicus, and fdmilidris, owing to their character as substan- 
tives, take a genitive even in the superlative; as, Homo dmicissimus nostrdrum 
hdininum, — very friendly to our countrymen. Cic. On the other hand, hostis, 
though a substantive, is sometimes used like an adjective, being modified by 



224 SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. § 222. 

an adverb, and taking an obiect in the dative; as, Exspectantibus omnibus 

?uisnam esset tarn impius, tarn demens, tam diis homlnlbusowe hostis, qui, etc. 
Jf, § 277, R. 1. 

Rem. 3. Some adjectives with the dative are followed by another case de- 
noting a different relation ; as, Mens sibi conscia recti, A mind conscious to it- 
self of rectitude. Virg. See § 213, R. 7. 

Rem. 4. Many adjectives, instead of the dative of the object, are 
often followed by an accusative with a preposition. 

(1.) Adjectives signifying useful, fit, and the opposite, take an accusative of 
the thing with ad, but only a dative of the person ; as, Homo ad nullam rem 
utilis. Cic. Locus aptus ad insldias. Id. 

(2.) Adjectives denoting motion or tendency, take an accusative with ad 
more frequently than a dative ; as, Piger ad poenas, ad praemia velox, Ovid ; 
Ad dliquem morbum proclivior, Cic ; Ad omne f acinus pdratus, Id. ; Promts ad 
f Idem, Liv. ; — sometimes with in ; as, Celer in pugnam. Sil. 

(3.) Many adjectives, signifying an affection of the mind, may have an ac- 
cusative of the object with in, erga, or adversus, instead of the dative; as, 
Fidelis in f Ilios. Just. Mater dcerba in suos partus. Ovid. Grdtus erga me. 
Cic. Grdtum adversus te. Id. So Disshnilis in dominum. Tac. 

(4.) Adjectives signifying like, equal, common, etc., when plural, are often 
followed by the accusative with inter ; as, Inter se similes. Cic. Hsec sunt in- 
ter eos communia. Id. Later se dlversi. Id. 

Rem. 5. Propior and proximus, instead of the dative, have sometimes, like 
their primitive prope, an accusative ; as, Quod vttium propius virtutem erat. 
Sail. P. Crassus proximus mare Oceanum hiemdrat. Cass. Ager, qui proximus 
f Inem Megdlopolitarum est. Liv. Cf. § 238, 1. 

Rem. 6. (a.) Some adjectives, instead of the dative, have at times an abla- 
tive with a preposition. Thus, par, communis, consentaneus, discors, with cum ; 
as, Quern par em cum Hberis fecisti. Sail. Consentdneum cum Us Uteris. Cic. 
Civil, is secum discors. Liv. So dlienus and dlcersus with a or ab ; as, Alienus 
a me, Ter. ; A ratione diversus, Cic; or without a preposition; as, Alienum 
nostra amlcltia. Id. — (b.) Fretus, which regularly takes the ablative, is in Livy 
construed with the dative; as, fortunasyV^ws; nulli rei fretus, etc Cf. § 244. — 
(c.) The participial adjectives junetus and conjunctus, instead of the dative, 
take sometimes the ablative eithei with or without cum. 

Rem. 7. Idem is sometimes followed by the dative, chiefly in the poets ; as, 
Jupiter omnibus idem. Virg. Invltum qui servat, idem fdcit occidenti. Hor. 
In the first example, omnibus is a dative of the object; in the second, the 
dative follows idem, in imitation of the Greek construction with av<r6s, and is 
equivalent to quod occldens, or quod fdcit is, qui occidit. Similis is construed 
in the same manner in Hor. Sat. 1, 3, 122. Idem is generally followed not by 
a case, but by qui, ac, atque, ut, quasi, or quam ; sometimes by the preposition 
cum. Cf. § 207, R. 27, (d.) Similis and par are sometimes, like idem, followed 
by ac and atque. 

Rem. 8. Some verbal substantives are followed by the dative, when derived 
from verbs governing the dative ; as, Justdia est obtemperatio scriptis legibus 
instltutisque pdpulorum. Cic. Trdditio dlicujus rei alteri. Id. Exprobrdtio 
cuiquam veteris fortunw. Liv. 

Note. A dative of the object often follows esse and other verbs, in connection with a 
predicate nominative or accusative, but such dative is dependent, not on the noun, but 
on the verb. Cf. § 227, R. 4. 



§ 223. SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. 225 

DATIVE AFTEK VEKBS. 

§ 323. A noun limiting the meaning of a verb, is put in 
the dative, to denote the object to or for which any thing is, or 
is done ; as, 

Men ddmus tlbi pdtet, Mv house is open to you. Cic. Pars optdre Idcum tecto, 
A part choose a site for a building. Virg. Tlbi sens, tlbi metis, You sow for 
yourself, vou reap for yourself. Plaut. Licet nemini contra polriam ducere ex- 
ercitum, It is not lawful for any one to lead an army against his country. Cic. 
Hoc tlbi promitto, I promise you this. Id. Hozret lattri letdlis drundo. Virg. 
Surdo fdbulam nai*ras. Hor. Mini responsum dedit. Virg. Sic vos non vobis 
fertu tirdtra, bdves. Id. Omnibus bonis expedit salvam esse rempublicam. Cic. 
Aptat habendo ensem. Virg. 

Note. The dative is thus used after all verbs, whether transitive or intransitive, per- 
sonal or impersonal, and iu both voices, provided their signification admits a reference to 
a remoter object, for whom or to whose benefit or injury any thing is done. In the pas- 
give voice, from their nature, neuter verbs can only be so construed impersonally. Of. 
§ 142. 1. and § 222, 2. 

RehabkI. The dative after many verbs is rendered not by to or for, but by other 
prepositions, or without a preposition. Many intransitive Latin verbs are translated 
into English by verbs transitive, and the dative after them is usually rendered like the 
object of a transitive verb. — Most verbs after which the signs to and for are not used 
with the dative, are enumerated in this and the following sections. 

Rem. 2. Many verbs signifying to favor, please, trust, assist, and 
their contraries, also to command, obey, serve, resist, threaten, and 
be angry, take a dative of the object. 

Note. The neuter verbs comprehended in this rule generally express in the 
verbal form the meaning of those adjectives, which are followed by the dative, 
(cf. § 222, K. 1.) Thus, (a.) Ilia tlbi fdvet, She favors you, or is favorable to 
you. Ovid. Mini pldcebal Pomponius, minime displicebat. Cic. Qui sibi fldit. 
Hor. Non licet sui commOdi causa ndcere alteri. Cic. Non invzdetur Mi aetati 
std i fiam fdvelur. Id. Desperat salfiti suoz. Id. Neque mini vestra decreta aux- 
ilianiur. ball. Imperat aut servit collecta petunia cuique. Hor. Obedlre et pdrere 
voluntati. Cic. Qudniam factioni inimicdrum resistere nequiverit. Sail. Mini 
muidbatur. Cic. Irasci inimicis. Caes. 

(b.) So Adulor, assent tor, blandior, commQdo, faveo, gratificor, grutor, grdtulor, and 
Its verbal grdtxildbundus, ignosco^ indulgeo, IStiocinor, palpor, parco, plaudo, respondeo, 
stiideo, suppardsitor ; cemtilor, incommQdo, invideo, ndceo, obsum, officio; — arrldeo, 
place o ; disptlceo ; — crSdo, fldo, confldo; despe.ro, diffido ; — adminicular, auxllior, 
mideor, mSdlcor, dpliulor, patroclnor,prOsum, subvSnio, succurro ; desum, insldior ; — 
implro, mando, m5dc~ror, prce.clpio, tempgro ; ausculto, morlgSror, obedio, obsecundo, 
obsequor, obtempiro, pareo, dicto audiens sum ; — ancillor, fdmulor, minis tro, servio, 
insrrvio, prepstZlor ; — adversor, refdgor, obsto, obtrecto, rSluctor, rinltor, rSpugno, re- 
sisto, and, chiefly in the poets, bello, certo, luctor, pugno ; — minor, commlnor, inter- 
mlnor ; — Irascor, succnseo, si 5m dehor. — To these may be added eequo, adaquo. eonvlcior, 
digSniro, excello, nubo, suppSdlto, pravarlcor, riclpia (to promise), rS nuncio, suadeo, 
persuddeo, dissuddeo, suppllco, vdeo, vldeor, and sometimes misceo and lateo:— also the 
impersonals accvlit, convb~nit, conducit, contingit, dScet, dultt, expSdit. licet, libel, or 
Ixibet, liquet, placet, etc. — (c.) Intransitive verbs governing a dative are often used imper- 
sonally in the passive with the same case; as, mVii invldctur. I am envied. Mlhi malS- 
dlcitur, I am reviled. Mild parcltur, I am spared. Hor. Hoc persuddetur mVii, I am 
persuaded of this. 

(1,) (a.) Many of the above verbs, which, as intransitive, take the dative, 
sometimes become transitive and are followed by an accusative; as, adulor, 
ausculto, bland'mr, degeniro, dtspero, indulyeo, Idteo, medeor, medicor, mdderor, 
obtrecto, prcustolor, prurideo, etc.; as, Aduldii aliquem. Cic. Hanc cave dege"ne- 
res. Ovid. Iwlulgeo me. Ter. Hujus adventum prcestdlans. Caes. Providere 
rem frumentdriam. Id. — Sometimes also by a preposition and the ablative or 
accusative; as, A Stolcis dfgenSrddt Pdncetius. Cic. De repiiblica desperare. 
Id. Oblreitarunt inter se. Nep.— or by a dependent clause ; as, Quae desperat 
tractdta nltescere posse, relinquit. Hor. 



226 SYNTAX. — DATIVE AFTER VERBS. § 224. 

(b.) Others, as transitive verbs, have, with the dative, an accusative, ex- 
pressed or understood ; as, impero, manSo, ministro, minor, comminor, intcrminor, 
pr&cipio, recipio, renuncio, etc. ; as, Equites imperat civitdtibus ; where cdgen- 
dos is perhaps to be supplied, He enjoins upon the states the providing of cav- 
alry. Cajs. See § 274, R. 5. Minisirdre victum dlicui. Varr. Deflagrationem 
urSi et Italia tdti mindbdtur. Cic. 

(c.) JEquo and ddcequo are construed with the accusative and either the da- 
tive or cum with the ablative. — Inwdeo takes either a single dative of the per- 
son or thing, a dative of the person and an accusative of the thing; as, Hono- 
rem mihi invident. Hor. ; or, when invidere is used in the sense of privdre, a da- 
tive of the person and an ablative of the thing ; as, Non invidcrunt laude sua 
mulieribus. Liv. In Horace, by a Greek construction, the genitive is once used 
instead of the accusative or ablative of the thing; as, Neque Me sepdsiti ciceris 
nee long<B invidet dvence. 

(d.) Cedo, used transitively, takes a dative of the person and an accusative 
of the thing ; but sometimes the thing is expressed by the ablative ; as, cedere 
dlicui possessione hortorum. So, also, concedo Mi locum, or concedo fibi loco. 

(2.) Many verbs which, from their significations, might be included in the 
above classes, are, as transitive verbs, only followed by an accusative ; as, 
dclecto, juvo, adjuvo, adjuto, kedo, offendo, etc. — Jiibeo is followed by the accusa- 
tive with an infinitive, and sometimes by the accusative alone, or the da- 
tive with the infinitive or subjunctive ; as, Jubeo te bene sperare. Cic. Lex 
jubet ea quce fdcienda sunt. Id. Ubi Britannico jussit exsurgere. Tac. Quibus 
jusserat, ut instantibus resisterent. Id. — Fldo and confldo are often followed by 
the ablative, with or without a preposition ; as, Fldere cursu. Ovid. Cf. § 245. 

§ 224L, Many verbs compounded with these eleven prepo- 
sitions, ad, ante, con, In, inter, ob, post, prce, pro, sub, and super, 
are followed by the dative ; as, 

Annue cceptis, Be favorable to our undertakings. Virg. Eomanis equitlbus 
literai afferuntur, Letters are brought to the Roman knights. Cic. Antecellere 
omnibus, To excel all. Id. Antetulit Iras religionem. Nep. Audetque viris con- 
currere virgo. Virg. Exercitum exercltui, duces ducibus compdrdre. Liv. Immi- 
net his air. Ovid. Pecori signum imp>ressit. Virg. Nox prselio intervenit. Liv. 
Jnterdixit histriombus scenam. Suet. Meis commodis officis et obstas. Cic. 
Cum se hostium telis objecissent. Id. Posthdbui mea seria ludo. Virg. Certd- 
mini prcesedit. Suet. Hibernis Labienum piwpdsuit. Cass. G embus prbcum- 
bere. Ovid. Miseris succurrere disco. Virg. lis subsidia submittebat. Cass. 
Timldis supervenit jEgle. Virg. 

Note 1. This rule implies that the compound retains the meaning of the 
preposition; and the dative following such compound is then used instead of 
the case governed by the preposition. When such compounds are transitive 
they have with the dative an accusative also, like other transitive verbs. 

1. Accedo, accresco, accumbo, acquiesco, adSqulto, adhareo, adjaceo, adno, adnato^ ad- 
sto, adstipulor^ adsum, adversor, affulgto, allabor, alludo, annuo, appareo, applaudo, 
apprQpinquo, arrepo, arrldeo, aspiro, assentior, assldeo, assisto, assuesco, asxurgo ; — 
addo, adliibeo, adjicio, adjungo, admiiveo, adverto, advolvo, aff&ro, afflgo, alligo, ap- 
pono, applico, aspergo. 

2. Ant£c5do, antScello, anteeo, antesto, antSvUnio, anlH'erto ;—antS/Sro, antShabeo, 
antepono. 

3. Coho'.reo, colludo, concftio, congruo, consentio, consSno, consuesco, convlvo, and, 
chiefly in the poets, coco, concumbo, concurro, contendo ; — con/Sro, conjungo, comparo, 
compOno. 

4. Incldo, incubo, inevmbo, indormio, ingSmisco, Infurreo, Inhio, innascor, innltor, 
insideo, insisto, insto, insiido, insulto, invudo, invigilo, Ulacrlmo, illudo, immvuo, im- 
rndrior, immoror, impendeo, ins urn ; — immisceo, impertio, impiino, impr\mo, Incldo, in- 
clude, induo, infUro, ingiro, injlcio, insSro, inspergo, insuesco, Xnuro. 

6. IntercSdn, intercido, intercludo, interjdceo, interrnlco, intersum, intervZnio ; — inter- 
dlco, interjicio, interpdno. 



§ 225. SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. 227 

6. Obambi'tlo, tiberro. Sb&qirtto, obluctor, obmurmuro, obrcpo, obsto, obsisto, obstrtpo, 
ob.tum, obtrecto, obvtnio, obversor, occumbo, occurro, occurso, officio; — obduco, objicio t 
off'Sro, offundo, oppono. 

7 Post/Sro, posth&beo, postpono, postptito, postscrtbo. 

8. PrcecSdo, prczcurro, prce.to, prceluceo, prcemlneo, prceritteo, prcesideo, prccsum, prce- 
valeo, praevertor ; — prcefZro, prae'fXcio, prcepono. 

9. Prdcumbo, profUio, propugno, prospicio, provldeo. 

10. SucrSdo, succresco, succumbo, succurro, sufflcio, suffragor, subSleo, siibj&ceo, 
subrCpo, subsum, subvdnio ; — subdo, subjlcio, subjugo, submitto, suppono, substerno. 

11. Siipercurro, supersto, supersum, supervSnio, supervlvo. 

Note 2. In some verbs compounded with prepositions the meaning of the 
preposition is lost. Such compounds are either not followed by a dative, or 
the case depends, not on the preposition, but on the signification of the verb, 
according to § 223. 

Remark 1. (a.) Some verbs, compounded with db, de, ex, circum, and con- 
tra, are occasionally followed by the dative; as, absum, dcsum, deldbor, despero, 
exddo, circumdo, circumfundo, circumjdceo, circumjicio, contrddico, contraeo ; as, 
Serta caplti delapsa, The garlands having fallen from his head. Virg. Numqui 
nvmmi exciderwit tibi? Plaut. Tigris urbi circumfunditur. Plin. Sibi desperans. 
Ca;s. — (b.) Circumdo and circumfundo take either an accusative of the thing with 
a dative of the person, or an ablative of the thing with an accusative of the per- 
son; as, circumdo dUcui custodias, or circumdo dliquem custddiis. Aspergo, in- 
spergo, dono, impertio, exuo, and induo, are construed in the same manner. 
Cf. \ 251, R. 2. 

Rem. 2. Some verbs of repelling and taking away (most of which are com- 
pounds of ah, d£, or ex), are sometimes followed by the dative, though more 
commonly by the ablative; as, dbxgo, abrogo, abstindo, aufero, ddimo, arceo, 
dt'ftndo, demo, depello, derogo, detrdho, eripio, eruo, excutto, eximo, extorqueo, ex- 
truho, exuo, 2)rdhibeo, sunipio. Thus, A T ec mlhi te eripient, Nor shall they take 
you from me. Ovid. Solslitium pecori difendite. Virg. Hunc arcebis pecori. Id. 
So rarely ab}'umjx), dlieno, furor, and rdpio. 

Rem. 3. Some verbs of differing (compounds of dl or dis) likewise occur 
with the dative, instead of the ablative with the preposition db, or poetically 
with the ablative alone; as, differo, discrepo, discordo, dissentio, dissideo, disto ; 
as, Quantum simplex hildrisque nepoti discrepet, et quantum discordet, partus 
avaro. Hor. Distdbil infido scurrae amicus. Hor. Grsecis Tuscdnicw stdtuoz dif- 
ferunt. Quint. Cdmaxlia differt sermdni. Hor. So likewise misceo; as, Mista 
modestia? grdvitas. Cic. 

Rem. 4. Many verbs compounded with prepositions, especially with ad, con, 
and mi, instead of the dative, either constantly or occasionally take the case 
of the preposition, which is frequently repeated. Sometimes, also, a preposi- 
tion of similar signification is used; as, Ad prima m vocem timidas adrertitis 
1 »vid. Nemo earn antccessit. Nep. Saxn rides sold codlescere calce. Lucr. 
Inferunt omnia in ignem. Caes. Silex incumbebat ad amnem. Virg. Innixus 
mddtramlne ndiis. Ovid. In Pansam frdtrem innixus. Plin. Conferte hane 
parent cum illo bello. Cic. In this substitution of one preposition for another, 
dd is used for in, and in for ad; db for ex; ad, ante, contra, and in, for 6b; dd 
and ante, for pr6. 

Rem. 5. Neuter verbs of motion or of rest in a place, when compounded 
with the prepositions, dd, ante, cdn, in, etc., either take the dative, or, acquir- 
ing an active signification, are followed by the accusative; as, Helvetii reliquos 
Gallos virtate proicedunt, The Helvetii surpass the other Gauls in valor. Cass. 
Uterque, Isocratem estate pi-cecurrit. Cic. So jprozeo, prcesto, prazverto, praicello. 
See $233, (3.) 

§ 22*3. I. Verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male, are 
followed by the dative ; as, 



228 SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. § 225. 

Et naturae et legibus sdtisfecit, He satisfied both nature and the laws. Cic. 
Tibi dii benefdciant omnes, May all the gods bless you. Plaut. But also, Ami- 
cum erga bene feci. Id. Mdledicit utrique. Hor. So sdtisdo, benedito, mdlefdcio. 

Notb. These compounds are often written separately ; and the dative always depends 
not on satis, bSne, and male, but on the simple verb. So, also, bSne and male altcui 
vulo ; as, Tibi bene ex anlmo volo. Ter. Dli Sgo ex omnibus optlme volo. Plaut. Non 
sibi male vult. Petron. In like manner valere dico, and vale dlco ; as, Augustus discS- 
dens (e curia) sSdentibus singulis valere dicebat. Suet. Tibi valedicere non licet gratis. 
Sen. — In late writers bSnSdlco and maledico sometimes take the accusative. 

II. Verbs in the passive voice are sometimes followed by a dative of the 
agent, chiefly in the poets and. the later prose writers ; as, Quidquid in hac 
causa mi hi susceptum est. Cic. Neque cernitur ulli, Nor is he seen by any one. 
Virg. Nulla tudrum audita mihi neque visa sororum. Id. Barbaras hie ego sum, 
quia non intelligor ulli. Ovid. But the agent after passives is usually in the 
ablative witli a or ab. See § 248, 1. 

III. The participle in dus is followed by a dative of the agent ; 

as, 

Unda omnibus endviganda, The wave over which (we) all must pass. Hor. 
Nobis, cum semel occidit brevis lur, Nox est perpetua una dormienda. Catull. 
Adhibtnda est nobis diligentia, We must use diligence. Cic. Vestigia summorum 
hominum sibi tuenda esse dicit. Id. Si vis me Jiere, dolendum est primum ipsi 
tibi. Hor. Faciendum mihi puldvi, ut responderem. Id. 

Eemakk 1. The dative is sometimes wanting when the agent is indefinite ; 
as, Orandum est, ut sit mens sdna in coipdre sdno. Juv. Hie vincendum aut m.6- 
riendum, milites, est. Liv. In such examples, tibi, vobis, nobis, hominibus, etc., 
may be supplied. Cf. § 141, K. 2. 

Rem. 2. ' The participle in dus sometimes, though rarely, has, instead of the 
dative of the agent, an ablative with a or db ; as, Non eos in deorum immortdlmm 
numero venerandos a vobis et colendos putdtos ? Cic. Hozc a me in dicendo prce- 
tereunda non sunt. Id. — The dative after participles in dus is by some referred 
to § 226. 

IV. Verbs signifying motion or tendency are followed by an ac- 
cusative with ad or in ; as, 

Ad tempi um Pallddis ibant. Virg. Ad prastSrem hominem traxit. Cic. Vergit 
ad septemtriones. Cass. In conspectum venire. Nep. 

So curro, duco, fero, festino, jugio, inclino, lego, mitto, pergo, pcrrio, prcctipi- 
to, propero, tendo, tollo, vddo, verto. 

Remark 1. So likewise verbs of calling, exciting, etc. ; as, JEurum ad se 
vocat. Virg. Prdvocasse ad pugnam. Cic. So dnimo, hortor, incito, invito, la- 
cesso, stimulo, suscito; to which may be added attineo, conformo, periineo, and 
specto. 

Rem. 2. But the dative is sometimes used after these verbs ; as, Clamor it 
coelo. Virg. Bum tibi literw meat veniant. Cic. Gregem viridi compellere Itibis- 
co. Virg. Sedibus hunc refer ante suis. Id. After venio both constructions 
are used at the same time ; as, Venit mihi in mentem. Cic. Venit mihi in sus- 
picionem. Nep. Eum venisse Germanis in amicltiam cognoverat. Caes. Prd- 
pinquo (to approach) takes the dative only. 

Rem. 3. Sometimes also verbs signifying motion are followed by an accusa- 
tive of place without a preposition, a supine in um, an infinitive, or an adverb 
of place ; as, Romam profectus est. Ite domum. Rus ibam. Lavinia venit li- 
tora. Virg. Neque ego te derisum venio. Plaut. Non nos Libycos populiire 
pendtes venimus. Virg. Hue venit. Plaut. See §§ 237, 276, II. 271, N. 2. 

Rem. 4. After do, scribo, or initio litems, the person for whom they are writ- 
ten or to whom they are sent, is put either in the dative or in the accusative 
with ad; as, Ex eo Idco tibi literas ante dederdmus. Cic. Vulturcius liter as sibi 



§ 226, 227. syntax. — dative after verbs. 229 

ad Catilinam ddtas esse, dicebat. Id. Qesar scrlbit Labieno cum, etc. Cses. Ad 
me Curius de te scripsit. Cic. But to give one a letter to deliver is also ex- 
pressed by dare literas alicui, and also the delivery of the letter by the bearer. 

§ 226. Est is followed by a dative denoting a possessor; — 
the thing possessed being the subject of the verb. 

Est thus used may generally be translated by the verb to have with the 
dative as its subject ; as, Est mihi domi pater, I have a father at home. Virg. 
Sunt nobis mltia poma, We have mellow apples. Id. Gratia nobis opus est tud, 
We have need of your favor. Cic. Innocentice plus perxculi quam honoris est. 
Sail. An nescis longas regibus esse mdnus t Ovid. So with an infinitive as the 
subject, Nee tibi sit duros dcuisse in prozlia dentes. Tib. 4, 3, 3. The first and 
second persons of sum are not thus construed. 

Remark 1. Hence mihi est nomen signifies, I have the name, my name is, or 
I am called. The proper name is put either in the nominative, tne dative, or 
the genitive. See § 204, R. 8. So also cognomen, cognomentum, and, in Taci- 
tus, vocdbulum, est mihi. — Sometimes, also, a possessive adjective agreeing with 
nomen, etc., supplies the place of the proper name; as, Est mihi nomen Tar- 
quinium. Cell. Mercurial e imj}d$uei°e mihi cognomen. Hor. 

Rem. 2. The dative is used with a similar signification after fore, suppplit, 
dbist, deest, and defit; as, Pauper enim non est, cui rerum suppetit usus. Hor. 
Si mihi cauda fdret, cercopithecus eram. Mart. Defuit ars vobis. Ovid. Non 
drfore Arsitcidis virtutem. Tac. Lac mihi non defit. Virg. Hoc unum illi ab- 
f'uit. Cic. 

Rem. 3. With the dative of the person after est Sallust and Tacitus some- 
times joifl, by a Greek idiom, volens, cupiens, and inv'dus; as, Quia neque plebi 
militia vdlenti (esse) putdbdtur, Because the common people were not thought 
to like the war. Sail. Ut quibusque bdlum invltis aut cupieniibus erat, Accord- 
ing as each liked or disliked the war. Tac. 

Dative of the End or Purpose. 

§ 227. Sum, and several other verbs, are followed by two 
datives, one of which denotes the object to which, the other the 
end for which, any thing is, or is done ; as, 

Mihi maxima est curse, It is a very great care to me. Cic. Spero nobis hanc 
conjunctionem voluptilti fore, I hope this union will afford us pleasure. Id. 
Matri putllam dono dedit. Ter. Fabio laudi datum est. Cic. Vitio id tibi ver- 
iunt. Plaut. Id tibi honori hdbelur. Cic. Mdturdvit colleges venire auxilio. Liv. 
Cui bono fuit t To whom was it an advantage V Cic. 

Remark 1. The verbs after which two datiyes occur, are su?n, f5re, flo, do, dono, 
duco, hdbeo, r&linquo, trfbuo, verto ; also curro, eo, mitto, proficiscor, v&nio, appono, as~ 
sigvo, cSdo, comparo, pdteo, suppSdito, Smo, and some others. 

Rem. 2. The dative of the end or purpose is often used after these 
verbs, without the dative of the object; as, 

Exemplo est formica, The ant is (serves for) an example. Hor. Absentium 
bona dlvlsui fuere. Liv. Reliquit pignori puldmina. Plaut. Quce esui et potui 
sunt. Cell. Esse derlsui, To be a subject of ridicule. Tac. Receptui cdnere, 
To sound a retreat. Cass. Aliquid doti dicdre, To set out as dowry. "Cic. 

Rem. 3. (a.) The verb sum, with a dative of the end, may be va- 
riously rendered ; as by the words brings, affords, serves, does, etc. 
The sign for is often omitted with this dative, especially after sum; 
instead of it, as, or some other particle, may at times be used ; as, 
20 



230 SYNTAX. — DATIVE AFTER PARTICLES. §228. 

Igndvia erit tibi magno dedecori, Cowardice will bring great disgrace to you. 
Cic. Hcec res est argumento, This thing is an argument, or serves as an argu- 
ment. Id. Hoc vltio mihi dant, This they set down as a fault in me. Uni- 

versos curae hdbuit. Suet. Una res erat magno usui was of great use. 

Lucil. Quod tibi magnopere cordi est, mihi vehementer displicet, What is a great 
pleasure, an object of peculiar interest to you, etc. Id. 

(b.) Sometimes the words jit, able, ready, etc., must be supplied, especially 
before a gerund or a gerundive; as, Quum solvendo civitdtes non essent, .... not 
able to pay. Cic. Dlvites, qui oneri ferendo essent. Liv. Quce restinguendo 
igni forent. Liv. Radix ejus est vescendo. Plin. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the dative of the end, a predicate nominative or accusa- 
tive is sometimes used ; as, Ndtura tu illi pater es, By nature you are his 
father. Amor est exltium pecori : or the purpose is expressed by the accusa- 
tive with ad or in ; as, Alicui comes est ad bellum. Cic. Se Remis in clientelam 
ditdbant. Cses. : or by the ablative with pro; as, Innocentia pro mallvolentia 
duci cwpit. Sail. Alcibus sunt arbores pro cublllbus. Cses. 

Rem.j5. Instead, also, of the dative of the end or purpose, quo ? to what end? 
for what purpose r why ? sometimes occurs, with an accusative, which gen- 
erally depends on a verb understood, or with an infinitive or a clause; as, Quo 
mihi fortunam, si non conceditur utit Hor. Quo tibi, Pasiphae, pretiosas sumere 
vestes? Ovid. 

Rem. 6. After do and other similar active verbs an accusative of the purpose 
is found in apposition; as, Ldtlni cdrdnam auream Jovi donum in Cdpitolium 
mittunt. Liv. Alicui comltem esse datum. Cic. Cf. § 204, R. 1 ; and § 230, R. 2. 

Note. The dative, instead of the accusative, is sometimes used after the 
infinitive, when a dative precedes, and the subject of the infinitive is omitted; 
as, Vobis necesse est fortibus esse viris. Liv. Maximo tibi et civi tt duci evddere 
coniigit. Val. Max. See §§ 205, R. 6, and 239, R. 1. 

DATIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 

§ SS8. Some particles are followed by the dative of the 
object; as, 

1. Some adverbs derived from adjectives; as, 

Propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis. Nep. Proxime castris, Very near to the 
camp. Cses. Propius stabulis armenta tenevent. Virg. Congruenter natura?, 
convenienterque vlvere, Agreeably to nature. Cic. Epicurus quam sibi constan- 
ter convenienterque dicat, non lahdvat. Id. Nemini nimium bene est. Afran. Mihi 
numquam in iMa fait melius. Hor. Vivere vitas hdminum amice. Cic. Bene 
mihi, bene vobis. Plaut. So, Mihi pbviam venisti. Cic. In certdmina smvo com- 
mvnus ire vlro. Sil. Quaistores provincial mihi pr&sto fuerunt. Cic. Sdmos est 
exadversum Mlleto. App. 

Remark. Propius and proxime, like their primitive prdpe, are sometimes 
construed with a and the ablativej as, Prdpe a meis aadibus. Cic. Stelke 
errantes propius a terris. Id. A Sura, proxime est Philiscum, oppidum Partho- 
rum. Plin. 

2. Certain prepositions, especially in comic winters; as, Mihi clam est, It is 
unknown to me. Plaut, Contra nobis. Id. But in such instances they seem 
rather to be used like adjectives. 

3. Certain interjections; as, Heimihi! Ah me! Virg. Vce mihi! Woisme! 
Ter. Pee victis esse ! Liv. Vce misero mihi. Plaut. Hem tibi. Id. Ecce tibi. Cic. 

Note, (a.) The dative of the substantive pronouns seems sometimes nearly 
redundant, but it always conveys the expression of a lively feeling, and is 
therefore termed ddtivus ethicus ; as, 



§ 229. SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 231 

Fur mihi es, .... in my opinion. Plaut. An ilk mihi liber, cui nuttier imp?rat? 
Cic. TongUium mihi eduxit. Id. Ubi nunc nobis deus ilk mayisterl Virg. 
Ecce tibi Sebosus ! Cic. i/ent tlbi takntum argenti! Philippicum est. Plaut. JSwt 
is sometimes subjoined quite pleonastically to suus; as, Suo sibi glddio hunc 
jigulo. Plant fgnorana suo sibi ser&ti patri. Id. Sibi suo tempore. 

(b.) The following phrases also occur with volo and a reflexive pronoun: 
quid Ubi vis? what do you want? quid sibi iste vult? what does he want? quid 
rult sibi luec OrCttio ? what does this speech mean ? quid hcec sibi dona volant ? 
what is the meaning of these presents? or, what is their object? 

ACCUSATIVE. 

ACCUSATIVE AFTEK VEEBS. 

§ 220. The object of a transitive verb is put in the accusa- 
tive ; as, 

Legates mittunt, They send ambassadors. Caes. Animus mdvet corpus, The 
mind moves the body. Cic. Da veniam banc, Grant this favor. Ter. Eum 
imitdti sunt, They imitated him. Cic. Piscem Syri venerantur. Id. 

Remark 1. A transitive verb, with the accusative, often takes a 
genitive, dative, or ablative, to express some additional relation ; as, 

Te conrinco amentise, I convict you of madness. Cic. Da Idcum melioribus. 
Give place to your betters. Ter. Solvit se Teucria luctu, Troy frees herself 
from grief. Virg. See those cases respectively. 

Rem. 2. Such is the difference of idiom between the Latin and English languages, that 
manj r verbs considered transitive in one, are used as intransitive in the other. Hence, 
in translating transitive Latin verbs, a preposition must often he supplied in English ; 
as, Ut me caveret, That he should beware of me. Cic. On the other hand, many verbs, 
•which in Latin are intransitive, and do not take an accusative, are rendered into English 
by transitive verbs ; as, Hie milii favet, He favors me : and many verbs originally in- 
transitive acquire a transitive signification. 

Rem. 3. The verb is sometimes omitted : — 

1. To avoid its repetition ; as, Eventum sendtus, quern (scil. dare) videbitur, 
dabit. Liv. 

2. The interrogative interjection quidf what? depends on ais or censes. So 
also quid vero ? quid Igitur f quid ergo ? quid enim ? which are always followed 
by another question, and both questions may be united into one proposition, 
the first serving merely to introduce the interrogation. With quid postea? 
quid turn ? supply sequitur. With quid quod, occurring in transitions, d'tcam de 
to is omitted, but it may be rendered ' nay,' ' nay even,' ' but now,' ' more- 
over,' etc., without an interrogation. — Dlcam is also to be supplied with quid 
multa? quid plural ne mnlta ; ne multis ; ne plura. The infinitive dicere is also 
sometimes omitted ; as, Ximis multa videor de me. Cic. Perge reliqua. Id. 

Rem. 4. The accusative is often omitted : — 

1. When it is a reflexive pronoun; as, Nox praicipitat, scil.se. Virg. Turn 
prora dvertit. Id. Eo Idvdlum, scil. me. Hor. 

The reflexives are usually wanting after afjoleo, abstlneo, accingo, ddeequo. <zquo, ag- 
glSmSro, nugeo, cglSro, cong&mhio, continue, dSclino, deedquo, deslno, difffro, duro, 
Irumpo, flecto, dSflecto, faci-sso, inci/Ao, incllno, insinuo, irrumpo, jungo, Idvo, laxo, 
iSnio, maturo, moUio, mdveo, muto, pono, prcpriipVo, prorumpo, quatio, rZmi'tto, rctracto, 
sedo, sisto, xtdbulo. suppddlto, tardo, tSneo. Undo, trajlcio.transmitto, turbo, vario, vergo. 
verto, dSverto, rlverto, vestio, vibro ; and more rarely after many others. 

2. When it is something indefinite, has been previous! v expressed in any 
case, or is easily supplied; as, Ego, ad quos scribam, nescib, scil. llteras. Cic. 
De quo et tecum egi dlligenter, tt scripsi ad te. Id. Bene fecit Silius. Id. Duett 
in hostem, scil. exercitum. Liv. 



232 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. § 230. 

Rem. 5. An infinitive, or one or more substantive clauses, may 
supply the place of the accusative after an active verb ; as, 

Da mild fallere. Hor. Reddes dulce loqui, reddes rldere decorum. Id. Cupio 
me esse clementem. Cic. Athenienses stdtuerunt ut naves conscenderent. Id. 
Vereor ne a doctis reprehendar. Id.Euoe, Bacche, sdnat. Ovid. Sometimes 
both constructions are united ; as, Di Irani miserantur inanem amborum, et tan- 
tos mortalibus esse labores. Virg. — Respecting the infinitive with and without 
a subject-accusative after an active verb, see § 270-273; and for the subjunc- 
tive after such verbs, see § 273. 

(a.) In such constructions, the subject of the dependent clause is sometimes 
put in the accusative as the object of the leading verb ; as, Nosti Marcellum, 
quam tardus sit, for Nosti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cic. Ilium, ut vlvat, 
qptant. Ter. At te ego fdciam, ut minus vdleas. Plaut. 

(b.) An ablative with de may also supply the place of the accusative, by the 
ellipsis of some general word denoting things, facts, etc., modified by such ab- 
lative ; as, De republica vestrd paucis accipe. Sail. Compare a similar omission 
of a subject modified by de and the ablative, § 209, E. 3, (2.) 

Rem. 6. The impersonal verbs of feeling, miseret, pcenitet, pildet, 
tcedet, piget, miserescit, miser etur, and pertcesum est, are followed by 
an accusative of the person exercising the feeling, and a genitive of 
the object in respect to which it is exercised. Cf. § 215, (1.) ; as, 

Forum nos miseret, We pity them. Cic. The impersonal Veritum est also 
occurs with such an accusative ; Quos non est veritum ponere, etc. Cic. 

Rem. 7. Juvat, delectat, fallit, fugit, prceterit, and decet, with their 
compounds, take an accusative of the person ; as, 

Te hilari dnimo e%se valde me juvat, That you are in good spirits greatly 
delights me. Cic. Fugit me ad te scribere. Cic. Illud alterum quam sit difficile, 
te non fugit. Id. Nee vero Caesarem fefellit. Cass. Fdcis, ut te decet. Ter. 
So also when used personally ; as, Parvum parva decent. Hor. ; but decet often 
takes the accusative of the person with the infinitive ; as, Hanc mdculam nos 
decet eff ugere. Ter. ; and in comic writers a dative ; as, Vobis decet. Ter. 

For mea. tua, sua, nostra, vestra, after refert and interest, see § 219, P.. 1: and for the 
accusative by attraction, instead of the nominative, see § 206, (6,) (b.) 

§ 2«$0. Verbs signifying to name or call ; to choose, render 
or constitute ; to esteem or reckon, which in the passive voice 
have two nominatives, are followed in the active voice by two 
accusatives, one of the object and the other of the predicate. 
Cf. § 210, R. 3, (3.) ; as, 

Urbem ex Antidchi patris nomine Antiochlam vdedvit, He called the city An- 
tioch, etc. Just. Ludos fdcis me, You make game of me. Plaut. Me consu- 
lem fecistis. Cic. Iram bene Ennius Initium dixit insdnwe. Id. Ancum Mar- 
cium regem pdpulus credvit. Liv. Sulpicium accusatorem suum numerdbat, 
non competltorem. Cic. Quum vos testes hdbeam. Nep. 

Note 1. The following are among the verbs included in this rule, viz. appello, dlco, 
nomlno, nuncupo, pSrhibeo, sdliito, scribo and inscrlbo, vSco ; capio, eonstltuo, creo, dS- 
cla.ro, dettgo, dSsigno, dlco, €ligo, facio, efficio, instltuo, ISgo, prddo, reddo. rSnuncio ; 
duco, dignor, existhno, habeo, jxidico, numdro, puto, rSpSrio, intelllgo, invSnio, se pro,- 
bSre or prcestare, etc. 

Note 2. An ablative with ex occurs, though rarely, instead of the accusa- 
tive of the object; as, Fortuna me, qui liber fueram, servum fecit, e summo 
infimum. Plaut. Cf. Qui recta prava fdciunt. Ter. 

Note 3. An infinitive may supply the place of the objective accusative; as, 
Si slmulasse vdcat crimen. Ovid. : — and sometimes of the predicate accusative 



§ 231. SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 233 

also; as, Si repcrire vdcas amittere certius; out si scire ubi sit repPiire vdcas. Id. 
So also an adjective may supply the place of the predicate accusative; as, 
Prcebuit se dignum suis majdrions. Cic. Cuesdrem certiorem fdciunt. Cses. 

Remark 1. After verbs signifying to esteem or reckon, one of the 
accusatives is often the subject, and the other the predicate, of esse 
expressed or understood ; as, 

Eum avarum possumus existimdre. Cic. Tdlem se imperatorem prcebuit. Nep. 
Prcesta te eum, qui mihi es eognitus. Cic. Mercurium omnium inventorem artium 
fe runt; hunc via rum atque itinerant ducem arbitrantur. Caes. ; or an adjective 
supplies the place of the predicate accusative ; as, Ne me existimdris ad mdnen- 
dum esse propensiorem. Cic. 

Note 4. Instead of the predicate accusative, (1) pro with the ablative some- 
times follows puto, duco, and hdbeo, but denotes only an approximation ; as, 
Aliquid pro certo habere or putdre. Ea pro falsis ducit. Sail. Aliquem pro hoste 
habere. Cass. — So also in with the ablative ; as, Nihil prceter virtutem in bonis 
habere. Cic. Aliquem in numero hostium ducere. Cic. — and the ablative with- 
out in ; as, Uti vos affinium loco ducerem. Sail. — So also e or ex with the abla- 
tive; as, ( Ut ) fdceret quod e repiibllca ■ fidegwe sua duceret. Liv. — Sometimes 
(2) the genitive; as, Officii duxit exbrdre filial pair em. Suet. (See § 211, R. 8, (3.) 
So with a genitive or an ablative of price or value ; as, Putdre aliquem nlhllo. 
Cic. Non hdbeo nauci Marsum augurem. Enn — and sometimes (3) a dative; as, 
Quando tu me hdbes desplcatui. Plaut. : — or an adverb ; as, iEgre hdbuit, f ilium id 
pro pdrente ausum. Liv. And (4) ad or in with the accusative ; as, Loca ad 
hibernaciila legere. Liv. Aliquem in Patres legere. Id.: or (5) the genitive 
depending on the ablative of cause, manner, etc. ; as, Qui servitutem deditionis 
ndmine appellant. Cass. 

Rem. 2. Many other verbs, besides their proper accusative, take a 
second, denoting a purpose, time, character, etc. 

Such are do, tribuo, sumo, peto, pono, adjungo, ascrlbo, cognosco, accio, Jingo, 
significo, etc. ; as, 

Qudre ejus fugat comTtem me adjungerem. Cic. Hominum opinio socium me 
ascribit tuis laudibus. Id. Quos ego sim tdlies jam dedigndta maritos. Virg. 
Hunc igitur regem agnoscimus, qui Philippum dedigndtur patrem ? Curt. Filiajn 
tuam mihi uxorem posco. Plaut. Petit hanc Sdturnia raunus. Ovid. Such 
constructions may often be referred to apposition, or to an ellipsis of esse. 

§ 331. Verbs of asking, demanding, and teaching, and celo 
(to conceal), are followed by two accusatives, one of the person, 
the other of the thing ; as, 

Hoc te vehementer rdgo. Cic. Illud te oro, ut, etc. Id. Pago te nummos, 
I ask you for money. Mart. Posce deos veniam, Ask favor of the gods. Virg. 
Quunt legtnt quis muslcam ddcuerit Epamluondam, When they shall read who 
taught Epaminondas music. Nep. Antigdnus Iter omnes celat, Antigonus con- 
ceals his route from all. Id. Deprecdri deos mala. Sen. Qudtidie Qesar 
JSduos frumentum Jldgiidre. Cses. Multa deos drans. Virg. 

Remark 1. This rule includes the verbs of asking and demanding, flagito, efflagito, 
obsecro, oro, exoro, contencio, percontor, posco. rSposco, consulo, prdcor. dSprccor, rdgo, 
and interrSgo, which, with the accusative of the person, take the accusative of the neuter 
pronouns hoc, id, illud, quod, quid, more frequently than that of a substantive ; of teach- 
ing, duceo, SdSceo. dSdQceo, and Irudio, which last has two accusatives onh/ in the poets. 
Admoneo and consulo are rarely found with two accusatives ; as, Co?isulam hanc rem 
amlcos. Plaut. Earn rem nos locus admonuit. Sail. 

Rem. 2. Instead of the accusative of the person, verbs of asking and de- 
manding often take the ablative with ab or ex ; as, Non debebam abs te has lile- 
ras poscere. Cic. Veniam oremus ab ipso. Virg. lstud vdlebam ex te percontdri. 
Plaut. 

20* 



234 SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. § 232. 

Eew. 3. (a.) Instead of the accusative of the thing, the ablative with de is 
sometimes used ; as, Sic ego te eisdem de rebus interrogem. Cic. De Itinere 
kostium sendtum eddcet. Sail. Bassus noster me de hoc libro celdvit. Cic. Cf. $ 229, 
R. 5, (b.) — (b.) Sometimes also instead of the accusative of the thing an infini- 
tive, or an infinitive or subjunctive clause is used; as, Deos precdri debetis, ut 
urbem defendant. Cic. ut doceam Rullum posthac tacere. Id. Docui id non 
fieri posse. Id. Doceant eum qui vir Sex. Roscius fuerit. Id. — (c.) With verbs 
of teaching, the instrument by means of which the art is practised is put in 
the ablative; as, Aliquem fidibus ddcere. Cic. Docere dliquem armis. Liv. 
Literce, may be used either in the accusative or in the ablative ; as, Te literas 
doceo. Cic. Doclus Greeds Uteris. Id. 

Rem. 4. Some verbs of asking, demanding, and teaching, are not followed by two ac- 
cusatives ; as, exigo, pito, postiilo, quce.ro, scltor, sciscltor, which, with the accusative of 
the thing, take an ablative of the person with the preposition ab, de, or ex ; imbuo, in- 
stituo, instruo, etc., which are sometimes used with the ablative of the thing, generally 
without a preposition, and are sometimes otherwise construed ; as, Institute aliquem 
ad dicendum. Cic. 

Rem. 5. (a.) Many active verbs with the accusative of the person, 
take also an accusative denoting in what respect or to what degree 
the action of the verb is exerted. 

(b.) The accusative of degree, etc., is commonly nihil, a neater pronoun, or 
a neuter adjective of quantity; as, Non quo me illiquid juvare posses. Cic. 
Pauca pro tempore milltes hortdtus. Sail. Id adjuta me. Ter. Neque est te fal- 
Ure quidquam. Virg. Cf. § 232, (8.) 

Rem. 6. By a similar construction, genus and secus, ' sex,' are sometimes used 
in the accusative, instead of the genitive of quality; as, Nullas hoc genus vigi- 
lias vigildrunt. Gell. So, Omnes muliebre secus. Suet. Cf. 211, R. 6, (4.) 

§ ^HS. (1.) Some neuter verbs are followed by an accusa- 
tive of kindred signification to their own ; as, 

Vitam jucundam vivere, To live a pleasant life. Plaut. Mlrum somnidvi 
somnium, I have dreamed a wonderful dream. Id. Furere hunc furorem. 
Virg. Istam pugnam puqndbo. Plaut. Pugndre dicenda 3Iusis prcelia. H'or. 
Lusum insdlentem ludere. Id. Si non servitiitem serviat. Plaut. Queror haud 
fdciles questus. Stat. Jurdvi verissimum jusjurandum. Cic. Ignotas jubet Ire 
vias. Val. Flacc. So, also, Ire exsequias, To go to a funeral. Ter. Ire suppe- 
tias, To go to one's assistance. Ire infitias, To deny. This expression is 
equivalent to infitior, and may like that take an accusative; as, Si hoc unum 
aajunxero, quod nemo eat infitias. Nep. : or the accusative with the infinitive ; 
as, Neque infitias imus Slclliam nostram provinciam esse. Liv. Ut suum gau- 
dium gauderemus. Coel. ad Cic. Prdficisci magnum iter. Cic. Pollux itque 
reditque viam. Virg. This accusative is usually qualified by an adjective. 

(2.) Verbs commonly neuter are sometimes used transitively, 

and are then followed by an accusative. 

Accusatives are thus used with dleo and sdpio, and their compounds, reddleo, 
resipio; as, Olet unguenta, He smells of perfumes. Ter. Olere peregrinum, 
To have a foreign smell. Cic. Ordtiones reddlentes antlqnitatem. Id. Mella 
herbam earn sdpiunt, The honey tastes of that herb. Plin. Uva picem vesipiens. 
Id. So, Sitio honores. Cic. Carnem pluit. Liv. Claudius aleam studiosissime 
lusit. Suet. Erumpere diu coercitam Iram in hostes. Liv. Libros evigildre. Ovid. 
Prceire verba. Liv. Nee vox homlnem sdnat. Virg. Suddre mella. Id. Morien- 
tem nomine cldmat. Id. Quis post vlna grdvem mill tiam aut pauperiem crepatf 
Hor. Omnes una manet nox. Id. Ingrdti dnimi crimen horreo. Cic. Ego meas 
queror fortunas. Plaut. Vivere Bacchanalia. Juv. Pastorem saltdret uti Cy- 
clSpa, rdgdbat. Hor. So the passive; Nunc agrestem Cyclopa mdvetur. Id. 
Xerxes quum mare ambuldvisset, terram ndvigasset. Cic. Qui stadium currit. Id. 
Commmia jura migrdre. Id. Te vdlo colldqui. Plaut. Ea disserere mdlui. Cic. 



« 



§ 233. SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 235 

Cdrydon ardebat Alexin. Virg. Stygias jurdvimus undas. Ovid. NdvUgat aequor. 
Virg. Currimus aequor. Id. Pascuntur sylvas. Id. 

Note 1. Accusatives are found in like manner after a??ibulo< calleo, doleo, Squlto, Jleo, 
gaitdeo, gtmo, glorior, horreo, Icetor, latro. nato, palleo, pdveo, pSreo, dtptrto, proccdo, 
quSror, fldeo, slleo, slbilo, taceo, trZmo, trSpido, vado, vSnio, etc. 

(3.) Neuter verbs and sometimes adjectives also may be fol- 
lowed by an accusative denoting in what respect, or to what de- 
gree, the feeling, condition, etc., is manifested ; as, 

Nihil laboro. Cic. Num id lacrimat virgot Does the maid weep on that ac- 
count? Ter. Malta alia peccat. Cic. Quicquid delrrant reges, pleciuntur 
Achlvi. Hor. Nee tu id indigndri posses. Liv. Illud ntiki loetandum video. Cic. 
Ulud valde Ubi asse7itior. id. Idem gldridri. Id. Hsec glorians. Liv. Hoc 
studet unum. Hor. — So, Id dperam do, I strive for this. Ter. Consilium petis, 
quid Ubi sim auctor. Cic. Quod guidam auctores sunt, Which is attested by- 
some authors. Liv. Nil nostri miserere? Virg. — Nihil Romance plebis similis. 
Liv. Senatus nihil sane intentus. Sail. These limiting accusatives have com- 
monly the force of adverbs, particularly nihil, which is used like an emphatic 
non in the sense of ' in no way,' ' in no respect.' So non nihil, ' to some extent,' 
4 in some measure.' 

Note 2. In the above and similar examples, the prepositions ob, propter, per, ad, etc., 
may often be supplied. This construction of neuter verbs is most common with the 
neuter accusatives id, quid, quidquam, attquid, quicquid, quod, nihil, nontrfhil, Idem, 
illud, tantum, quantum, unum, multa, pauca, alia, cetSra, omnia, etc. Cf. § 256, R. 16, N. 

§ 233. Many verbs are followed by an accusative depend- 
ing upon a preposition with which they are compounded. 

(1.) Active verbs compounded with trans, ad, and circum, have 
sometimes two accusatives, one depending upon the verb, the other 
upon the preposition ; as, 

Omnem equitdtum pontem transducit, He leads all the cavalry over the bridge. 
Cses. Agesllaus Hellespontum copias trajecit. Nep. Petreius jusjurandum dd- 
igit Afranium. Cass. Koscillum Pompeius omnia sua praesidia circumduxii. Id. 



So, Pontus scopulos superjdeit undam. Virg. So, also, adverto and induco with 
dnimum ; as, Id dnimum advertit. Caes. Id quod animum induxerat paulisper 
non tenuit. Cic. So, also, injicio in Plautus — Ego te mdnum injiciam. 

(2.) Some other active verbs take an accusative in the passive 
voice depending upon their prepositions ; as, 

Mdgicas accingier artes, To prepare oneself for magic arts. Virg. In prose 
writers the ad is in sudh cases repeated; as, accingi ad consuldtum. Liv. 
Clnssis circumvehitur arcem. Id. Quod anguis ddmi vectem circumjectus fuisset. 
Cic. Locum proztervecius sum. Id. 

(3.) Many neuter verbs, especially verbs of motion, or of rest in a 
place, when compounded with prepositions which govern an accusa- 
tive, become transitive, and accordingly take an accusative ; as, 

Gentes quce mare illud adjacent, The nations which border upon that sea. Nep 
Ob'quitdre ngmen. Curt. Incfdunt mcestos locos. Tac. Transi/ui flammas. Ovid. 
Buccedere teeta. Cic. Ludvrum diiibus, qui cognltlonem intervenerant. Tac. 
Adire provinciam. Suet. Caveat ne proelium meat. Cic. Ingredi Iter pedibus. 
Cic. Epicuri horti quos mddo proztenhdmus. Id. 

Note. To this rule belong many of the compounds ofambiilo, cedo, curro, eo, Squlto, 
Jjuo, gradior, labor, no and nato, ripo, salio. scando, vado, visitor, venio, vulo ; — cubo t 
jaceo, sSdeo, sisto, sto, etc., with the prepositions included in § 224, aud with ex. 



236 SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. § 234. 

Remark 1. Some neuter verbs compounded with prepositions 
which govern an ablative, in like manner become transitive, and are 
followed by an accusative ; as, 

Neminem conveni, I met with no one. Cic. Qui societatem coieris. Id. 
Aversdn honores. Ovid. Ursi arborem dversi derepunt. Plin. Edormi crapulam. 
Cic. Egressus exsilium. Tac. Evdditque celer ripam. Virg. Excedere nume- 
rum. Tac. Exire limen. Ter. Tibur aquae fertile prcejiuunt. Hor. 

Rem. 2. After verbs both active and neuter, compounded with 
prepositions which take an accusative, the preposition is often repeat- 
ed, or one of similar signification is used ; as, 

Ccesar se ad neminem adjunxit. Cic. Multitudinem trans Rhenum in Galliam 
transduce re. C«s. — In Galliam invdsit Antonius. Cic. Ad me ddlre quosdam 
memini. Id. Orator perqgrat per animos hominum. Id. Ne in senatum accede- 
rem. Id. Regina ad templum incessit. Virg. Juxta genitorem adstat Ldvinia. Id. 
Fines extra quos egredi non possim. Cic. A dative instead of the accusative 
often follows such compounds, according to § 224. Circum is not repeated. 

Note. Some verbal nouns and verbal adjectives in bundus are 
followed by an accusative, like the transitive verbs from which they 
are derived ; as, 

Quid tibi hue receptio ad te est meum virum ? Wherefore do you receive my 
husband hither to you '? Plaut. Quid tibi, malum, me, aut quid ego agam, curdiio 
'st? Id. Quid tibi hanc aditio est? Id. Quid tibi hanc notio est, mquam, amlcam 
meam? Quid tibi hanc digito tactio 'st? Id. Hanno vitdbundus castra hostium 
consulesque. Liv. Mithrldates Romanum medltabundus bellum. Just. Mira- 
bundi vanam speciem. Liv. Populdbundus agros. Sisenn. Carnificem imdgind- 
bundus. App. 

§ S34:. A verb in the passive voice has the same govern- 
ment as in the active, except that the accusative of the active 
voice becomes the nominative of the passive. 

Note 1. The accusative of the person with the infinitive, after verbs of saying 
and commanding, may become the subject of the passive voice; as, Active, 
Dico regem esse justum ; — Passive, Rex dlcitur Justus esse. Act. Jubeo te re- 
dire ; — Pass. Juberis redire : the construction in the passive heing the same as 
though regem and te had depended immediately upon dico andjuoeo. — So, also, 
when the accusative of the person is the object of the verb and the infinitive 
stands as the accusative of the thing. Cf. § 270, N. 

I. When a verb, which in the active voice takes an accusative 
both of the person and of the thing, is changed to the passive form, 
the accusative of the person becomes the nominative, and the accusa- 
tive of the thing is retained ; as, 

Rogdtus est sententiam v He was asked his opinion. Liv. Interrdgdtus cansam. 
Tac. Segetes allmenta^e debita dives poscebdtur humus. Ovid. Motus ddceri 
gaudet Ionicos mdtura virgo. Hor. Omnes belli artes edoctus. Liv. Nosne hoc 
celdtos tarn diu f Ter. Multa in extis mdnemur. Cic. 

Note 2. The accusative of the thing after doctus and edoctus is rare ; and 
after celdri it is generally a neuter pronoun; as hoc or id celabar; of this I was 
kept in ignorance; but it is found also with the person in the dative; as, Id 
Alcibiadi diutius celdri non potuit. Nep. Alcib. 5. Celo, and especially its pas- 
sive, generally takes de with the ablative. 

Remark 1. (a.) Induo and exuo, though they do not take two accusatives 
In the active voice, are sometimes followed by an accusative of the thing in 



§ 235. SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 237 

the passive; as, Tmluitur dtras vestes, She puts on sable garments. Ovid. 
Thorfica induius. Virg. Exuta est Roma senectam. Mart. So inducor and cin- 
gor; as, Fernim cingitur. Virg. So recingitur anguem. Ovid. 

(b.) When two accusatives follow an active verb compounded with trans, 
the passive retains that which depends upon the preposition; as, BdgcR Rhenuru 
antiquitus transducti. Caes. 

Rem. 2. The future passive participle in the neuter gender with est, is some- 
times, though rarely, followed by an accusative ; as, Multa ndvis rebus quum sit 
agendum. Lucr. Quam (viam) nobis ingrediendurn est. Cic. 

II. Adjectives, verbs, and perfect participles, are sometimes fol- 
lowed by an accusative denoting the part to which their signification 
relates; as, 

Nudus membra, Bare as to his limbs. Virg. Os hiimeros^e deo similis. Id. 
CU'iri genus. Tac. Tribuni suam vlcem anxii. Liv. Tremit artus. Virg. Cetera 
parce puer bello. Id. Sibila colla tumentem. Id. Expleri mentem nequit. Id. 
Grvneus eruitur oculos. Ovid. Picti scuta Ldblci. Virg. Collis frontem lenxter 
fastigdtus. Coes. Animum incensus. Liv. Oblitus faciem suo cruore. Tac. 

Remark 1. In this construction an ablative is often joined with the perfect 
participle; as, Miles fractus membra labore. Hor. Dexterum genu laplde 
ictus. Suet. Ad versum femur tragu la grdviter ictus. Liv. 

Rem. 2. This is a Greek construction, and is usually called the limiting or 
Greek accusative. It is used instead of an ablative of limitation, (§ 250,) and 
occurs most frequently in poetry. 

Rem. 3. A limiting accusative instead of the ablative is found also in a few- 
ordinary expressions, as in pariim (for partem), vlcem, magnam and maxxmam 
partem, instead of magna or maxima ex parte, or the adverb fere; as, Maxt- 
mam partem lacte vlvunt. Cass. Magnam partem ex iambis nostra constat ordtio. 
Cic. Livy has magna pars, viz. Numldae, magna pars agrestes. — So cetera and 
reliqua are joined to adjectives in the sense of ceteris, ' for the rest,' ' in other 
respects'; as, Proximum regnum, cetera egregium, ab una parte haud satis 
prosperum fuit. Liv. So cetera similis, cetera bdnus. A te bis terve summum 
llteras accept. Cic. — So, also, in the expressions id tempdris ; id, hoc or idem 
cetdtis, Mud horce, for eo tempore, ed cetdte, etc. ; id genus, omne genus, quod genus. 

ILL Some neuter verbs which are followed by an accusative, are 
used in the passive voice, the accusative becoming the subject, ac- 
cording to the general rule of active verbs; as, 

Tenia vivitur aitas. Ovid. Bellum militdbttur. Hor. Dormltur hiems. Mart. 
Multa peccanlur. Cic. Aditur Gnossius Minos. Sen. iVe ab omnibus circumsis- 
t&retw. Caes. Uosles invddi posse. Sail. Campus obitur aqua. Ovid. Plures in~ 
euntur gratia;. Cic. Ea res silelur. Id. 

ACCUSATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 235. (1.) Twenty-six prepositions are followed by the 
accusative. 

These are ad, ad versus or adversum, antt, apud, circa or circum, circiter, cis or citrd, 
contra, erga, extra, infra, inttr., intra, juxta, Ob, pSnSs, pe~r, post, pont, prater, propS, 
propter, secundum, supra, trans, ultra; as, 

Ad templum non cequce PaUddis ibant, — to the temple. Virg. Adversus hastes, 
Against the enemy. Liv. Germdniqui ds Khenum incdlwnt, — this side the Rhine. 
Caes. Quum tantum resideat intra muros mali. Cic. Priruipio rerum imperium 
penes reges erat. Just. Templum ponam propter dquam. Virg. Inter agendum. 
Id. Ante ddmandum. Id. Respecting the signification of some of the preced- 
ing prepositions see $ 195, R. 5, etc. 



238 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. § 235. 

Remark 1. Cis is generally used with names of places ; citra with other 
words also; as, Cis Taurum. Cic. Cis Pddum. Liv. Paucos cis menses. Plaut. 
Citra Veliam. Cic. Citra sdtietdtem, Not to satiety. Col. Citra fdtlgdtionem. 
Cels. Citra Trdjdna tempdra. Ovid. 

Rem. 2. Inter, signifying between, applies to two accusatives jointly, and 
sometimes to a single plural accusative; as, Inter me et Sclpionern. Cic/ Inter 
ndtos et pdrentes. Id. Inter nos, Among ourselves. Id. Inter falcdrios, Among 
the scythe-makers. Cic. When it denotes time it signifies during, and more 
rarely at ; as, Inter ipsurn pugnae tempus. Liv. Inter ccenam. Cic. 

Rem. 3. Ante and post are commonly joined with concrete official titles, 
when used to indicate time, rather than with the corresponding abstract nouns ; 
as, ante or post Ciceronem consulem, rather than ante or post consulatum Cice- 
ronis. 

(2.) In and sub, denoting motion or tendency, are followed by the 
accusative ; denoting situation, they are followed by the ablative ; as, 

Via ducit in urbem, The way conducts into the city. Virg. Noster in te amor. 
Cic. Callimdchi epigramma in Cleombrotum est — on or concerning Cleombrotus. 
Id. Exercitus sub jugum missus est, The army was sent under the yoke. Caes. 
Magna mei sub terras Ibit imago. Virg. Media in urbe, In the midst of the 
city. Ovid. In his fuit Ariovistus. Cass. Bella sub Iliads moenibus gerere. 
To wage war under the Trojan walls. Ovid. Sub nocte silenti. Virg. 

Rem. 4. The most common significations of in, with the accusative, are, 
into, to, towards, until, for, against, about, concerning, — with the ablative, in, on, 
upon, among. In some instances, in and sub, denoting tendency, are followed 
by the ablative, and, denoting situation, by the accusative; as, In conspectu 
meo audet venire. Phaed. Ndtidnes quce in amicitiam pdpiili Rdmdni, ditionem- 
que essent. Id. Sub jugo dictator hostes misit. Liv. Hostes sub montem conse- 
disse. Caes. 

Rem. 5. In and sub, in different significations, denoting neither tendency nor 
situation, are followed sometimes by the accusative, and sometimes by the 
ablative ; as, Amor crescit in horas. Ovid. Eostilem in modum. Cic. Quod in 
bono servo dlci posset. Id. Sub ea conditione. Ter. Sub poena mortis. Suet. 

Rem. 6. In expressions relating to time, sub, denoting at or in, usually takes 
the ablative ; as, Sub adventu Rdmdnorum. Liv. Sub luce. Ovid. Sub tempore. 
Lucan. Denoting near, about, just before or just after, it takes the accusative ; 
as, Sub lucem. Virg. Sub lumlna prima. Hor. Sub hoc herns inquit. Id. 

Rem. 7. In is used with neuter adjectives in the accusative in forming ad- 
verbial phrases ; as, In universum, In general. In tdtum, Wholly. So, in plenum ; 
in incertum ; in tantum ; in quantum ; in majus ; in melius ; in omnia, in all re- 
spects, etc. 

(3.) Super, when denoting place or time, is followed by the accusa- 
tive, and sometimes poetically by the ablative ; but when it signifies 
on, about, or concerning, it takes the ablative. With the accusative 
super signifies over, above, besides or in addition to ; with numerals, 
more than; as, 

Super Idbentem culmina iecti, Gliding over the top of the house. Virg. Super 
tres modios. Liv. Super moi'bum etiam fames affecit exercitum. Id. Super 
tenero prosternit gramine corpus, He stretches his body on the tender grass. 
Virg. Multa super Priamo rdgitans super Hectore multa, .... concerning Priam, 
etc. Id. 

Rem. 8. The compound desuper is found with the accusative, and insuper 
with the accusative and the ablative. 

(4.) Subter generally takes the accusative, but sometimes, in 
poetry, the ablative ; as, 

Subter terras, Under the earth. Liv. Subter densa testudlne. Virg. ^ 



§236. SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE OF TIME AND SPACE. 239 

(5.) Clam is followed by either the accusative or the ablative ; as, 

Clam vos, "Without your knowledge. Cic. Clam patrem. Ter. Clam matrera 
Buam. Plaut. Clam vobis. Caes. Neque potest dam me esse. Plaut. Clam 
uxore mea. Id. Its diminutive clanculum is once followed by the accusative, 
clanculum patres. Ter. 

Eem. 9. The adverbs versus or versum and usque are sometimes annexed 
to an accusative, principally of place, which depends on ad or m, and sometimes 
the preposition is omitted; as, Ad Oceanum versus prof 'icisci. Cass. Fugam 
ad se versum. Sail. In Galliam veisus castra movere. Id. — Usque ad Numan- 
tiam. Cic. Usque in Pamphyliam. Id. Ad noctem usque. Plaut. — Brundusium 
versus. Cic. Terminos usque Libya. Just. Usque Ennam prqfecti. Cic. Versus 
is always placed after the accusative. — Usque occurs more rarely with sub and 
ir-ans with the accusative; as, Trans Alpes usque transfertur. Cic. Usque 
sub extremum brumce imbrem. — Versus also rarely follows ab, and usque 
either ab or ex with the ablative ; as, Ab septemtridne versus. Varr. A funda- 
mento usque nwvisti mare. Plaut. Usque ex ultima Syria. Cic. Usque a pueritia. 
Ter. Usque a Romulo. Cic. Usque a mane ad vesperum. Plaut. 

Rem. 10. Prepositions are often used without a noun depending upon them, 
but such noun may usually be supplied by the mind; as, Multis post annis, 
i. e. post id tempos. Cic. Circum Concordiai, scil. aidem. Sail. 

Rem. 11. The accusative, in many constructions, is supposed to depend on a 
preposition understood; as, Quid 6pus est plural i. e. propter quid? why? i. q. 
cur? or qudre? Cic. So, Quid me ostentem ? Id. But it is not easy, in every 
case, to say what preposition should be supplied. For the accusative without 
a preposition after neuter verbs, see § 232. For the accusative of limitation, 
see § 234, II. 

ACCUSATIVE OF TIME AND SPACE. 

§ 236. Nouns denoting duration of time, or extent of space, 
are put, after adjectives and verbs, in the accusative, and some- 
times after verbs in the ablative ; as, 

Ace. Appius caucus multos annos fuit, Appius was blind many years. Cic. 
Biduum Laodicean fui. Id. Dies totos de virtute disserunt. Id. Te jam annum 
audicntem Crdtippum. Id. — Decreverunt intercdldrium quinque et quadraginta 
dies longum. Id. — Quum dbessem ab Amdno Iter unius diei. Id. Tres pdteat cadi 
spdtium non amplius ulnas. Virg. (Cf. § 256, R. 6.) A porta stadia centum et 
vlginti processimus. Cic. — Duas fossas quindecim pedes latas perduxil, — two 
ditches fifteen feet broad. Caes. Fossa quinos pedes allm. Id. Foramina longa 
pf-des tres semis. Cato. Orbem olearium crassum dlgltos sex fdciio. Id. — 
Ai'.L. Vixit annis undetriginta. Suet. Quatuordecim annis exsihum tolerdvit. 
Tac. Triginta annis vixit Pan&tius. Cic. — Exercitus Romdnus tridui Itinere ab- 
J'uit ab amne Tdnai. Tac. uEsculdpii templum quinque millibus passuum dis- 
tans. Liv. 

Note 1. The ablative denoting extent of time and space is rarely used by 
Cicero, and less frequently than the accusative by other writers. 

Note 2. The accusative denoting extent of space sometimes follows the ab- 
verbs huge, altc, etc. ; as, Campestris Idcus alte duos pedes et semissem infd- 
diendus est. Colum. Vercingetorix Idcum castris deligit ab Avarico longe millia 
passuum sedecim. Caes. 

Note 3. (a.) Old, in reference to the time which a person has lived, is 
expressed in Latin by ndlus, with an accusative of the time; as, Decessit 
Alexander mensem unam, annos tres et triginta ndlus. Just, (b.) A person's 
aire may also be expressed without ndlus by a genitive of the time closely 
connected with his name, according to § 211, R. 6; as, Alexander anndrum 
trium et triginta decessit. (c.) Older or younger than a certain age is ex- 
pressed by prefixing to the accusative or genitive of the definite age the ad- 



240 SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE OF PLACE. § 237. 

verbs plus or minus, or the adjectives major or minor, either with or without 
quam. See § 256, K. 6 and 7. — Sometimes, also, the ablative depends on the 
comparative ; as. Minor viginti quinque annis ndtus. Nep. Minor triginta anni3 
ndtu. Cic. Biennio quam nos major. Id. Cf. § 256, R. 16. (1.) 

Remark 1. Nouns denoting time or space, used to limit other nouns, are put 
in the genitive or ablative. See § 211, R. 6. 

Rem. 2. A term of time not yet completed may be expressed by an ordinal 
number; as, Nos vlcesimum jam diem patimur hebescere dciem horum auctdri- 
tdtis. Cic. Punico bello duodecimum annum Italia urebdtur. Liv. Hence in 
the passive, Nunc tertia vivitur setas. Ovid. 

Rem. 3. The accusative or ablative of space is sometimes omitted, while a 
genitive depending on it remains; as, Castra qum dberant bidui, scil. spdtium or 
spdtio. Cic. 

Rem. 4. To denote a place by its distance from another, the ablative is 
commonly used ; as, Millibus passuum sex a Cazsaris castris consedit. Cses. ; but 
sometimes the accusative ; as, Tria passuum millia ab ipsa urbe castra posuit. 
Liv. The only words used for this purpose in the ablative alone are spdtio and 
intervallo ; as, Quindecim ferme millium spatio castra ab Tdrento posuit. Id. 

Note 4. For abhinc and a cardinal number, with the accusative or ablative 
of past time, see § 253, R. 2. For the ablative denoting difference of time or 
space, see § 256, R. 16. 

Rem. 5. A preposition is sometimes expressed before an accusative of time 
or space, but it generally modifies the meaning; as, Quern per decern annos 
dluvmus, .... during ten years. Cic. 

Rem. 6. When the place from which the distance is reckoned is not men- 
tioned, ab is sometimes placed before the ablative of distance, as if this de- 
pended on the preposition ; as, A millibus passuum duobus castra posuerunt, Two 
miles from the place, or, Two miles off. Cses. 

Rem. 7. An accusative of weight also occurs when expressed by libram or 
libras in connection with pondo. Cf. § 211, R. 6. (4.) 

ACCUSATIVE OF PLACE. 

§ ££37. After verbs expressing or implying motion, tho 
name of the town in which the motion ends is put in the accusa- 
tive without a preposition ; as, 

Megulus Carthagmem rediit, Regulus returned to Carthage. Cic. Capuam 
jlectit iter, He turns his course to Capua. Liv. Calpumius Romam prqficisci- 
tur. Sail. Romam erat nuncidtum. Cic. . 

Remark 1. The accusative, in like manner, is used after iter with sum, ha- 
beo, etc. ; as, Iter est mihi Lantivium. Cic. Catsdrem iter habere Capuam. Id. 
And even after sum alone ; as, Omnia ilia mumcipia, quae, sunt a Vibone Brundi- 
sium. Cic. So with a verbal noun; as, Adventus libma,m. Liv. Heditus Ro- 
mam. Cic. 

Rem. 2. (a.) The preposition to be supplied is in, denoting to or into, which 
is sometimes expressed; as, In Ephesum dbii. Plant. Ad, before the name 
of a town, denotes direction towards it; as, Iter dingere ad Mutinam. Cic; and 
also its vicinity ; as, Adolescentulus miles prdfectus sum ad Capuam ; i. e. in cas- 
tra ad Capuam. Id. So, Lcelius cum classe ad Brundisium venit. Cass. Ccesar 
ad G£nevam pervenit. Id. Quum ego ad Heracleam accederem. Cic. 

(b.) When urbs, oppidum, Idcus, etc., follow the names of towns as apposi- 
tions, they generally take a preposition ;. as, Demdrdtus se contulit Tarquinios, in 
urbem Etrurim forentissimam,. Cic. Ad Cirtam oppidum iter constituunt. Sail. — 
So also when the name of the town is qualified by an adjective ; as> Magnum 



§ 238. SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES, ETC. 241 

tier ad doctas prdficisci cogor Athenas. Prop. But the poets and later prose 
writers sometimes omit the preposition ; as, Ovid, Her. 2, 83. 

Rem. 3. Instead of the accusative, a dative is sometimes, though rarely, 
used ; as, Carthaglni nuncios mittam. Hor. Cf. § 225, IV. and R. 2. 

Rem. 4. Domus in both numbers, and rus in the singular, are put 
in the accusative, like names of towns ; as, 

Ite domum, Go home. Virg. Galli domos dbierant, — had gone home. Liv. Rus 
ibo, I will go into the country. Ter. 

Note, (a.) When ddmus is limited by a genitive or a possessive adjective 
pronoun, it sometimes takes a preposition: with other adjectives, the preposi- 
tion is generally expressed ; as, Non introeo in nostram domum. Plaut. Venisse 
in domum Leccas. Cic. Ad earn domum prqfecti sunt. Id. In domos sup eras 
scandere cura fuit. Ovid. Rarely, also, when not limited ; as, Socrates phildsd- 
phiam in domos introduxit. Cic. So, larem suum. App., or ad larem swum. Cic. 
Qlricas in Albense rus inferre. Plin. Quum in sua rura venerunt. Cic. With 
the possessor's name in the genitive, either ddmum or in domum is used; as, 
Pomponii domum venisse. Cic. In ddmum Mcelii tela inferuntur. Liv. 

(b.) Domus is sometimes used in the accusative after a verbal noun; as, 
Domum reditionis spe subldtd. Cses. So, Itio domum. Cic. Concursus domum. 
Cas. Cf. R. 1. 

Rem. 5. (a.) Before the names of countries and of all other places in which 
the motion ends, except those of towns, and domus and rus, the preposition is 
commonly used ; as, Ex Asia transis in Europam. Curt. Te in Eplrum venisse 
gaudeo. Cic. But it is sometimes omitted; as, Deveniunt speluncam. Virg. 
Devenere locos. Id. Tumulum antiquce Cereris sedemque sacrdtam venimus. la. 
Ibis Cecropios portus. Ovid. So, also, before names of countries, especially 
those ending in us ; as, ^Egyptus, Bosporus, Chersoncsus, Epirus, Peloponnesus, 
etc. So, also, Illyrlcum pi-6/ectus. Ca?s. Macedonian! pervenit. Liv. Afiicam 
transliluriis. Id. So, Tacitus construes even names of nations, when used, as 
they often are, for those of countries; as, Ductus inde Cangos exercitus. Iberos 
ad patrium regnum pervddit. So, Virgil, Nos ibtmus Afros. — Pliny has, Insulas 
Rubri Maris ndvigant. 

(b.-) Before the names of small islands the preposition is frequently omitted; 
as, Pausdniam cum classe Cyprum mlserunt. Nep. : but rarely before the names 
of the larger islands ; as, Sardinia, Britannia, Creta, Euboza, Sicilia. 

(c.) Before accusatives of any words denoting locality after verbs of motion, 
the poets omit the preposition; as, Italiam — Ldvlnidque venit lltora. Virg.— 
The old accusative joras is used, like names of towns, to denote the place 
uhither, while /oris denotes the place where ; as, Vdde foras. Mart. Exit fo- 
ras. Plaut. 

ACCUSATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, 
AND INTERJECTIONS. 

§ 238. 1. («•) The adjectives propior and proximus, with 
their adverbs propius and proxime, like their primitive prope, 
are often joined with the accusative ; as, 

Ipse propior montem suos eollocat. Sail. Crassus proximus mare Oceanum, 
hiemdrat. Caes. — Libyes propius mare Africum dyitdbant. Sail. Proxime His- 
paniam Mauri sunt. Id. 

(b.) The adverbs pridie and postrldie are also often followed by the accusa- 
tive; as, Pridle eum diem. Cic. Pridieidus. Id. Postrldie ludos. Id. — (c.) An 
accusative sometimes follows intus and cOminus; as, Intus domum. Plaut. 
Ayrestts cvnunus ire sues, scil. in. Prop. 
21 



242 SYNTAX. SUBJECT-ACCUSATIVE. § 239. 

Remark 1. The accusative with pridie and postrldie is hy some referred to 
ante and post understood. For the genitive after these words, see § 212, R. 4, 
N. 6. — Respecting versus, usque, exadversus C-um) and secus with the accusative, 
see § 195, R. 3: and $ 235, R. 3. 

Rem. 2. The adverb bene, by the elipsis of vdlere jubeo, is sometimes followed 
by the accusative in forms of drinking health ; as, Bene vos, bene nos, bene te, 
bene me, bene nostrum etiam Stephanium ! Plaut. Bene Messalam, a health to 
Messala. Tibull. It is also construed with the dative. See § 228, 1. 

2. In exclamations, the noun or pronoun which marks the object 
ofihe feeling is put in the accusative either with or without the inter- 
jections, 01 ah! heu! eheu! eccel en I hem! pro! or vce /as, 

En qudtuor dras! ecce duas tibi Dapkni ! Behold four altars! lo, two for 
thee, Daphnis ! Virg. Eccum ! eccos ! eccillum I for ecce eum I ecce eos ! ecce 
ilium ! Plaut. prceeldrum custodem ! Cic. Heu me infellcem ! Ter. Pro Deum 
ho m) numque f 'Idem ! Cic. Ah me, me! Catull. Eheu me miserum ! Ter. Bern 
astutias ! Id. Vce te ! Plaut. Vce me ! Sen. Miseram me ! Ter. Bdminem gra- 
ven et ctvem egregium ! Cic. Cf. § 228, 3. 

Note. The accusative after interjections is supposed to depend on some 
verb of emotion to be supplied. 



SUBJECT-ACCUSATIVE. 

§ £139. The subject of the infinitive mood is put in the ac- 
cusative ; as, 

Moleste Pompeium idferre constdbat, That Pompey took that ill, was evident. 
Cic. Eos hoc nomine appelldri fas est. Id. Mlror te ad me nihil scribere, 
I wonder that you do not write to me. Cn. Mag. in Cic. Campos jubet esse 
pdtentes. Virg. 

Note 1. In historical writing the present infinitive has sometimes its subject in the 
nominative. Cf. §209, R. 5. 

Remark 1. The subject of the infinitive is omitted when it precedes in the 
genitive or dative case; as, Est adolescentis mdjdres ndtu vereri, scil. eum. Cic. 
Expedii bonas esse vobis, scil. vos. Ter. ; and rarely when it precedes in the 
accusative; as, Ea populus Icetdri et merito dlcere Jieri ; and also when its place 
is supplied by a possessive pronoun expressed or understood; as, Non fuit con- 
silium (meum) — servllibus officiis intentum aitdtem dgere (scil. me). Sail. 

Rem. 2. A substantive pronoun is also sometimes omitted before the infini- 
tive, when it is the subject of the preceding verb ; as, Pollicitus sum suscepturum 
(esse), scil. me, I promised (that I) would undertake. Ter. Sed redder e posse 
negdbat, scil. se. Virg. 

Rem. 3. The subject of the infinitive is often omitted, when it is a general 
word for person or thing ; as, Est dliud Iracundum esse, dliud irdtum, scil. hdmi- 
nem. Cic. See § 269, R. 1. 

Rem. 4. The subject-accusative, like the nominative, is often wanting. See 
§ 209, R. 3. The subject of the infinitive may be an infinitive or a clause. 
See § 269, R. 3. 

Note 2. For the verbs after which the subject-accusative with the infinitive is used, 
Bee $ 272. For the accusative in the predicate after infinitives neuter and passive, see 
J 210. 



§ 240, 241. SYNTAX. VOCATIVE — ABLATIVE. 243 

VOCATIVE. 

§ 940. The vocative is used, either with or without an in- 
terjection, in addressing a person or thing. 

Remark 1. The interjections 0, heu, and pro (proh), also ah, au 
(hau), ehem, eho, ehodum, eia (heia), hem, heus, hui, io, and ohe, are 
followed by the vocative ; as, 

formdse puer ! beautiful boy ! Virg. Heu virgo ! Id. Pro sancte Jupiter ! 
Cic. Ah stulte! Ter. Ecus Syre! Id. Ohelibelle! Mart. Ehodum bone vir. 
Ter.— Orbem, mi Rufe, cole. Cic. Quinctlli Vare, leyidnes redde. Suet. Quo 
rnoriture rids ? Hor. Macte virtute esto. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The vocative is sometimes omitted, while a genitive depending upon 
it remains; as, miser ce sortis I scil. hdmines. Lucan. 

Note. The vocative forms no part of a proposition, but serves to designate the person 
to whom the proposition is addressed. 

ABLATIVE. * 

The ablative denotes certain relations of nouns and pronouns, all of which are express- 
ed in English by means of prepositions. In Latin this case is sometimes accompanied by 
a preposition, and sometimes stands alone. Cf. § 37, 6. 

ABLATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 
§ 24:1. Eleven prepositions are followed by the ablative. 

These are a, for ab, abs), absque, de; coram, pdlam, cum, ex, (e); 
sine, tenus, pro, and praz ; as, 

Ab Mo tempore, From that time. Liv. A scribendo, From writing. Cic. 
Cum exercitu, With the army. Sail. Certis de causis, For certain reasons. Cic. 
Ex fuyd, From flight. Id. Pdlam pdpulo. Liv. Sine labor e. Cic. Capulo tenus. 
Virg. Cantdbit vacuus coram latrone viator. Juv. cf. § 195, 5. 

Note. Of the prepositions followed by the ablative, five signify removal or separation, 
viz. o (ab or abs), de, e (or ex), absquS and slni. 

Remark 1. Tenus is ahvavs placed after its case. It sometimes takes the 
genitive plural. See § 221, III. — Cum is always appended to the ablative of the 
personal pronouns me, te, se, nobis, and vobis, and commonly to the ablatives 
of the relative pronoun, quo, qua, qulbus, and qui. Cf. § 133, 4,' and § 136, R. 1. 

Rem. 2. The adverbs prdcul and simul are sometimes used with an ablative, 
which depends on the prepositions a or ab, and cum understood; as, Prdcul 
mari, Far from the sea. Liv. Simul nobis habitat. Ovid. Prdcul diibio. Suet. 
The prepositions are frequentlv expressed; as, Prdcul a terra. Cic. Prdcul a 
patrta. Virg. Tecum simul. Plaut. Vobiscum simul. Cic. — So, rarely, ozque. 
Qui me in terra a>que fortunatus erit. PJaut. Cf. Novi ozque omnia tecum. Id. 

Rem. 3. Some of the above prepositions, like those followed by the accusa- 
tive, are occasionally used without a noun expressed; as, Quum coram sumus. 
Cic. Cum fratre an sine. Id. Cf. § 235, R. 10. 

Rem. 4. The ablative follows also the prepositions in and sub, when they 
answer to the question 'where?' super, when it signifies 'on' or 'concerning'; 
and sometimes clam and subter. Cf. § 235, (2.) — (5.) 

Rem. 5. In is generally joined with the ablative after verbs of platiny, as, 
pOuo, loco, colld(0, stdtuo, constituo, and consido; as, Et sale tdbentes artus in 
ntore ponunt. Virg. — So, also, after verbs signifying to have, hold, or reyard, 



244 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE AFTER CERTAIN NOUNS. § 242, 243 

as, Mbeo, duco, nilmero, etc. — After verbs of assembling, concealing, and includ- 
ing, in is followed by either the accusative or the ablative. — After deflgo, in- 
scribo, insculpo, incldo, and insero, in is usually joined with the ablative. 

§ S4S. Many verbs compounded with ab, de, ex, and super, 

are followed by an ablative depending upon the preposition ; as, 

Abesse urbe, To be absent from the city. Cic. Ablre sedibus, To depart from 
their habitations. Tac. Ut se mdledictis non abstineant. Cic. Detrudunt naves 
scdpulo, They push the ships from the rock. Virg. Ndvi egressus est. Nep. 
Excedere flnious. Liv. Ccesar prcelio supersedere stdtuit. Caes. Tributo ac de- 
lectu supersessum est. Cic. So the adjective extorris; as, Extorris patria, ddmo. 
Sail. And so the verbal eruptio ; as, Mutina eruptio. Cic. 

Remark 1. The preposition is often repeated, or one of similar signification 
is used; as, Detrahere de tua fama numquam cdgUdvi. Cic. Ex dculis dburunt. 
Liv. Exlre a patria. Cic. Exlre de vita. Id. Cf. § 224, E. 4. 

Rem. 2. These compound verbs are often used without a noun ; but, in 
many cases, it maybe supplied by the mind; as, Equites degressi ad pedes, 
scil. equis. Liv. Ablre ad Deos, scil. vita. Cic. 

Rem. 3. Some verbs compounded with ab, de, and ex, instead of the abla- 
tive, are sometimes followed by the dative. See § 224, R. 1 and 2. Some com- 
pounds, also, of neuter verbs, occur with the accusative. See § 233, R. 1. 

ABLATIVE AFTER CERTAIN NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, 
AND VERBS. 

§ 2 Jr3. Opus and usus, signifying need, usually take the ab- 
lative of the thing needed ; as, 

Auctoritate tua nobis dpus est, We need your authority. Cic. Nunc animis 
opus, nunc pectSre Jirrao. Virg. Naves, qulbus consuli usus non esset, Ships, for 
which the consul had no occasion. Liv. Nunc various usus, nunc minibus rdpi- 
dis. Virg. 

Remark 1. (a.) Opus and usus are sometimes followed by the ablative of a 
perfect participle ; as, Matiirato opus est, There is need of haste. Liv. Usus facto 
est mihi. Ter. Ubi summus imperdtor non ddest ad exercxtum, citius, quod non 
facto est usus, Jit, quam quod facto est dpus. Plaut. After opus, a noun is some- 
times expressed with the participle; as, Opusfuit Hirtio convento, — of meeting, 
or, to meet, § 274, R. 5. Cic. Opus slbi esse domino ejus invento. Liv. — or a su- 
pine is used; as, Ita dictu opus est, It is necessary to say, I must say. Ter. — 
Instead of the ablative with opus est, an infinitive, either alone or with a sub- 
ject accusative, or ut with a subjunctive clause, sometimes occurs ; as, Opus 
est te dnimo valere. Cic. Mihi dpus est, ut lavem. Id. 

{b.) Opus and usus, though nouns, are seldom limited by the genitive. In a 
few passages they are construed with the accusative. See § 211, R. 11. 

Rem. 2. Opus is sometimes the subject and sometimes the predicate of est; 
usus, which seldom occurs except in ante-classic poets, is, with only rare ex- 
ceptions, the subject only. The person to whom the thing is needful is put in 
the dative; (§ 226.) With opus the thing needed may either be the subject of 
the verb in the nominative or accusative, or follow it in the ablative; as, Dux 
nobis dpus est. Cic. Verves multa sibi dpus esse aiebat. Id.; or, Diice nobis 
opus est. The former construction is most common with neuter adjectives and 
pronouns; as, Quod non opus est, asse cdrum est. Cato apud Sen. — In the 
predicate opus and usus are commonly translated 'needful' or 'necessary/ 
Cf. § 210, R. 5. 

Note. For the ablative of character, quality, etc, limiting a noun, see § 211, R. 6. 



§ 244, 245. syntax. — ablative after certain nouns. 245 

§ 244. Dignus, indignus, contentus, prceditus, and fretus, 

are followed by the ablative of the object ; as, 

Dignus laude, Worthy of praise. Hor. Vox pdpiili majestate indigna, A speech 
unbecoming the dignity of the people. Cass. Besiice eo contenlce non qy.ce.runt 
amplius. Cic. Hdmo scelere prceditus. Id. Plerique ingenio /red. Id. — So, 
jEquum est me atque illo. Plaut. 

Remark 1. The adverb digne, in one passage, takes the ablative; Pec- 
cat titer nostrum cruce dignius. Hor. — Dignor, also, both as the passive of the 
obsolete digno, and as a deponent verb, is followed by an ablative of the thing. 
As a deponent it takes also an accusative of the person ; as, Haud equidem tali 
me honore dignor. Virg. — Pass. Qui tali honore digndii sunt. Cic. Conjugio, 
Anchisa, Veneris digndte superbo. Virg. — Sometimes as a deponent, instead of 
the ablative of the thing, it is followed by an infinitive clause ; as, Non ego 
grammdlicas ambire tribus et pulpita dignor. Hor. And both dignor and dedignor 
are followed by two accusatives, one of the object the other of the predicate. 
See § 230, R. 2. 

Rem. 2. (a.) Dignus and indignus are sometimes followed by the genitive; 
as, Suscipe cogitdtidnem dignissimam turn virtutis. Cic. Indignus avorum. Virg. ; 
and dignus sometimes takes a neuter pronoun or adjective in the accusative ; 
as, Non me censes scire quid dignus siem ? Plaut. Fretus is in Livy construed 
with the dative. Cf. § 222, R. 6, (b.) 

(b.) Instead of an ablative, dignus and indignus often take an infinitive, 
especially in the passive; as, Erat dignus amari. Virg.; or a subjunctive 
clause, with qui or ut ; as, Dignus qui imperet. Cic. Non sum dignus, ut f Igam 
palum in parietem. Plaut.; or the supine in u; as, Digna atque indigna relaiu 
vociferans. Virg. Contentus is likewise joined with the infinitive; as, Non hmc 
artes contenta pdternas edldicisse fuit. Ovid. — So, Naves pontum irrumpere 
fretce. Stat. 

§ 24»7. I. Uior, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their 
compounds, are followed by the ablative ; as, 

Ad quern turn Juno supplex his vocibus usa est, — addressed these words. Virg. 
Fvui voluptate, To enjoy pleasure. Cic. Fungilur officio, He performs his 
duty. Id. Oppido pot'di sunt. Liv. Vescitur aura. Virg. His rebus per fruor. 
Cic. Legibus abuti. Id. Defuncti imperio. Liv. Gravi op ere perfungimur. Cic. 
tandem magnis peldgi dffuncte perlclis. Virg. 

The compounds are abator, dtutor, perfruor, defungor, and perfungor. 

Note. Uior may take a second ablative, as an apposition or a predicate, 
like the predicate accusative, (§ 230, R. 2), and may then be translated by 
the verb to have ; as, Ille fdcili me utetur patre, He shall have in me an indul- 
gent father. Ter. 

Remark. In early writers these verbs sometimes take an accusative ; as. 

Quam rem medici utuntur. Varr. Ingenium frui. Ter. Datames m'dUdre mu- 

nus fungens. Nep. Gentem dliquam urbem nostram pui'duram putem. Cic. Sa- 

cras lauros vescar. Tibull. In prologis scribendis operain dbutitur. Ter. — Potior 

4s, also, found with the genitive. See § 220, 4. 

n. 1. NUor, innltor, fido and confido, may be followed by the ablative 
without a preposition; as, Hasta innixus. Liv. Fidere cursu. Ovid. Katura 
loci confideoant. Caes. 

2. Misceo with its compounds takes, with the accusative of the object, the 
ablative of the thing mingled with ; as, Miscere pdbula sale. Coll. Aquas nec- 
tare. Ovid. Aer multo calure admixtus. Cic. 

3. Assuesco, assuefdcio, consuesco, insuesco, and sometimes acquiesco, take 
either the dative or the ablative of the thing; as, Aves sanguine et praedii as- 
duitae. Hor. Nullo officio aut discipline assuef actus. Caes. Cf. § 224. 

21* 



246 SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE OP CAUSE, ETC. § 246, 247. 

4. Vivo and epulor, • to live or feast upon,' are followed by the ablative ; as, 
Dapibus epuldmur dpimis. Virg. Lacte atque pecore vlvunt. Cses. 

5. Sto signifying 'to be filled or covered with,' and also when signifying ' to 
cost,' is followed by the ablative without a preposition; when signifying ' to 
persevere in, stick to, abide by,' ' to rest or be fixed on,' it is followed by the 
ablative either with or without in ; as, Jam pulvere coelum stare vident. Virg. — 
Multo sanguine ac vulneribus ea Pcenis victoria stetil. Liv. Stare condition! bus. 
Cic. Omnis in Ascanio stat cura parentis. Virg. — Consto, 'to consist of or 'to 
rest upon,' is followed by the ablative either alone or with ex, de, or in ; as, 
Constat mdteries solido corpore. Lucr. Homo ex ammo constat et corpore. Cic. 

Remark 1. Fido, confido, misceo, admisceo, permisceo, and assuesco often 
take the dative. 

Rem. 2. When a preposition is expressed after the above verbs, sto, fido, 
confido, nitor, innitor, and assuesco take in or ad; acguiesco, in; and misceo 
with its compounds, cum. 

§ £24:0. Perfect participles denoting origin are often fol- 
lowed by the ablative of the source, without a preposition. 

Such are natus, prognatus, situs, creatus, cretus, Sditus, gSnttus, gZnSratus, ortus ; to 
which may be added Sriundus, descended from. 

Thus, Nate ded ! son of a. goddess ! Virg. Tantalo prognatus, Descended 
from Tantalus. Cic. Sdtus Nereide, Sprung from a Nereid. Ovid. Credius 
rege. Id. Alcdnore creti. Virg. Edite re gibus. Hor. • Diis genite. Virg. Argdl- 
ico generdtus Alemdne. Ovid. Ortus nullis mdjdribus. Hor. Ccelesti semine 
tiriundi. Lucr. 

Remark 1. The preposition is also rarelv omitted after the verbs creo, genero, 
and nascor ; as, Ut patre certo nascerere. Cic. Fortes creantur fortibus. Hor. 

Rem. 2. After participles denoting origin, the preposition ex or de is usually 
joined to the name of the mother; and in a few passages ex or ab is joined to 
the name of the father; as, Prdgndti ab Dite patre. Caes. In speaking of one's 
ancestors ab is frequently used ; as, Plerosque Belgas esse ortos a Germanis. Id. 

Rem. 3. Origin from a place or country is generally expressed by a patrial 
adjective; as, Thrdsybulus Atheniensis, Thrasybulus of Athens. Livy often 
usesa&; as, Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia. Caesar prefers the ablative alone; 
as, Cn. Magius Cremdna; and in this manner is expressed the tribe to which a 
person belongs ; as, Q. Verres Romilia, — of the Romilian tribe. 

ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, Etc. 

§ 247'. Nouns denoting the cause, manner, means, and in- 
strument, after adjectives and verbs, are put in the ablative with- 
out a preposition. 

Note. The English prepositions with the ablative of cause, manner, means, 
and instrument are by, with, in, etc. 

1. The cause. (1.) Adjectives which have a passive significa- 
tion, as denoting a state or condition produced by some external 
cause, may take such cause in the ablative ; as, 

Campdni fuerunt superbi bonitate agrorum. Cic. Animal pabulo ketum. Sen. 
Prselio fessi lassique, Weary and faint with the battle. Sail. Hdmines cegri 
gravi morbo. Cic. 

(2.) Neuter verbs expressing an action, state or feeling of the 
subject originating in some external cause, may take that cause in 
the ablative ; as, 



§ 247. SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, ETC. 247 

Interiit fame, He perished with hunger. Laude aliena ddlet. Cic. Lcetor 
tua dignitate. Id. Gaude tuo bono. Id. Sua victoria gloridri. Caes. Aqulloni- 
bus Idborant querccta. Hor. — So with bene est and the dative; a*, Mild bene eral 
non piscibus urbe petitis, sed pullo atque hasdo. Hor. Ubi illi bene sit ligno, 
aqua calidii, cibo, vestlmentis, etc. Plaut. 

Note 1. After such adjectives and neuter verbs, a preposition with its case 
often supplies the place of the simple ablative. 

Note 2. In exclamations of encouragement or approbation, the defective 
adjective made, macli, either with or without the imperative of esse (esto, este, 
estate,) is joined with an ablative of cause, especially with virtute. 

Note 3. After neuter verbs and adjectives denoting emotions, especially 
those of care, grief, and sorrow, the accusative vicem, with a genitive or a pos- 
sessive pronoun, is used, instead of the ablative vice, to signify ' for ' or ' on 
account of; as, Remittlmus hoc Ubi, ne nostram vicem irascdris," That you may 
not be angry on our account. Liv. Tuam vicem sa'pe ddleo, quod, etc. Cic. 
Suam vicem mdgis anxius, quam ejus, cut auxilium ab se petebdtur. Liv. 

Remark 1. When the cause is a voluntary agent, it is put in the accusative 
with the preposition ob, propter, or per ; as, Non est atquum me propter vos 
decipi. Ter. These prepositions, and a, or ab, de, e or ex, and proe, are also 
sometimes used when the cause is not a voluntary agent; as, Ob adulterium 
catsi. Virg. Nee Idqid prae moerore potuit. Cic. 

Rem. 2. (a.) After active verbs, the cause, unless expressed by an ablative 
in u from substantives having no other case; as, Jussu, rdgdlu and adnwnitu, 
is seldom expressed by the simple ablative, but either by a preposition, or by 
causa, gratia, ergo, etc., with a genitive; as, Legibus propter nietum pdret. 
Cic. Ne ob earn rem ipsos despiceret. Id. Dondri virt&tis ergo. Id. Si hoc 
honoris mei causa, susceperis. Id. But with causa, etc., the adjective pronoun 
is commonly used for the corresponding substantive pronoun; as, Te dbesse 
mea causa, moleste fero. Cic. Cf. § 211, R. 3, (b.) 

(6.) When the cause is a state of feeling, a circumlocution is often used with 
a perfect participle of some verb signifying ' to induce ' ; as, Cupidltate ductus, 
induttus, incitdtus, incensus,in/!ammdfus,impuhus,motus, captus, etc. Mihi bene- 
volentia. ductus tribuebat omnia. Cic. Livy frequently uses ab in this sense; 
as, Ab Ira, a sp>e, ab odio, from anger, hope, hatred. 

2. The manner. Cum is regularly joined with the ablative of 
manner, when expressed simply by a noun, not modified by any 
other word ; and also when an adjective is joined with the noun, 
provided an additional circumstance, and not merely an essential 
character of the action, is to be expressed. Thus : 

Cum voluptate dliquem audire. Verres Lampsdcum venit cum magna calaml- 
tate civiidtis. Cic. Hence also when the connection between the subject and 
the noun denoting the attribute is only external ; as, Procedure cum veste pur- 
purea : in distinction from Nudis pedi ous incedere ; Aperto capite sedere, etc., 
which express circumstances or attributes essential to the subject. 

But modus, ratio, mos, rltus, etc., signifying manner, never take cum, and it is 
omitted in some expressions with other substantives; as, Hoc modo scripsi ; 
Const it uf runt qua ratione dgeretur ; More bestidrum vdgdri ; Latronum ritu vlvere ; 
jEquo animoj^ero; Maxima, fide dmlcitias culuit. Summa sequitate res consti- 
tuit ; Viam incredlbili celeritate confecit; Librum magna cura diligentiaywe 
scripsit ; the action of the verb being intimately connected with the circum- 
stance expressed by the ablative. So in some expressions with substantives 
alone ; as, Silentio praierlre or fdcere dliquid ; Lege dgere ; Jure and injuria 
J"dcere ; Magistrdlus vitio credtus ; Recte el ordlne Jit. 

Rem. 3. The manner is also sometimes denoted by de or ex with the abla- 
tive ; as, De or ex induslrid, On purpose. Liv. Ex integro, Anew. Quint. 



248 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, ETC. § 248. 

3. The means and instrument. An ablative is joined with 
verbs of every kind, and also with adjectives of a passive significa- 
tion, to express the means or instrument ; as, 

Amlcos observantia, rem parslmonia retinuit, He retained his friends by at- 
tention, his property by frugality. Cic. Auro ostroywe decori. Virg. JEgrescit 
medendo. Id. Cormbus tauri, apri dentibus, morsu hones se tutantur. Cic. 
Qbsus est virgis. Id. Trabs saucia securi. Ovid. For the ablative of the means 
after verbs of filling, etc., see § 249, 1. 

Kem. 4. When the means is a person, it is seldom expressed by the simple 
ablative, but either by per, or by the ablative opera, with a genitive or a pos- 
sessive pronoun ; as, med, tud, sua, opera, which are equivalent to per me, per 
te, per se, and denote both good and bad services. Beneficio meo, etc., is used 
of good results only ; as, Beneficio meo patres sunt. Sail. But persons are some- 
times considered as involuntary agents, and as such expressed by the ablative 
without a preposition ; as, Servos, quibus silvas publicas depopuldtus erat. Cic. — 
When per is used to express the means, it is connected with external concur- 
ring circumstances, rather than with the real means or instrument. Hence 
we always say vi oppidum cepit, but per vim ei bdna eripuit. 

Rem. 5. The material instrument is always expressed by the ablative with- 
out a preposition ; as, Conficere cervum sdgittis ; glddio dliquem vulnerdre; trd- 
jicere pectus ferro. 

§ £548. The ablative is used with passive verbs to denote 
the means or agent by which any thing is effected, and which in 
the active voice is expressed by the nominative. This ablative 
is used either with ab or without it, according as it is a person 
or a thing. 

I. The voluntary agent of a verb in the passive voice is put in 
the ablative with a or ab ; as, 

(In the active voice,) Clodius me dlligit, Clodius loves me (Cic); (in the pas- 
sive,) A Clodio dlligor, I am loved by Clodius. Lauddtur ab his, culpdtur ab 
illis. Hor. 

Remark 1. (1.) The general word for persons, after verbs in the passive 
voice, is often understood ; as, Prdbitas lauddtur, soil, ab hdmlnlbus. Juv. So 
after the passive of neuter verbs ; as, Discuriitur. Vug. Tdto certdtum est cor- 
jp6re regni. Id. Cf. § 141, E. 2. 

(2.) The agent is likewise often understood, when it is the same as the sub- 
ject of the verb, and the expression is then equivalent to the active voice 
with a reflexive pronoun, or to the middle voice in Greek; as, Quum omnes in 
omni gene re scelerum volutentur, scil. a se. Cic. 

Rem. 2. Neuter verbs, also, are sometimes followed by an ablative 
of the voluntary agent with a or ab ; as, 

M. Marcellus periit ab Anmbale, M. Marcellus was killed by Hannibal. Plin. 
Ne vir ab hoste cddat. Ovid. 

Rem. 3. The preposition is sometimes omitted; as, Nee conjuge captus. 
Ovid. Cdlitur linigerd turba. Id. Pereat meis exclsus Argivis. Hor. 

For the dative of the agent after verbs in the passive voice, and participles in dus, see 
$ 225, II. and in. 

II. The involuntary agent of a verb in the passive voice, or of a neuter verb, 
is put in the ablative without a preposition, as the cause, means, or instrument; 
as, Maximo dolore conf'tcior. Cic. Frangi cupiditate. Id. uEdcidce telo jdcet 
Hector. Vug. 



§ 249. SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, ETC. 249 

Note. The involuntary agent is sometimes personified, and takes a or ab ; 
as, A voluptatlbus desert. Cic. A natiira datum homini Vivendi curriculum. Id. 
Vinci a voluptate. Id. Victus a labore. Id. 

§ 2-19. I. A noun denoting the means, by which the action 
of a verb is performed, is put in the ablative after verbs signify- 
ing to affect in any way, to Jill, furnish, load, array, equip, en- 
dow, adorn, reward, enrich, and many others. 

Remark 1. This rule includes such verbs as officio, aspergo, conspergo, inspergo, re- 
spergo. coynpleo, expleo, irnpleo, oppleo, repleo, suppleo, cumiilo, farcio, rSfercio, sdtio, 
exs&tio, sdttiro, stlpo, constlpo, obruo, dnSro, augeo, induo, vestio, armo, orno, circumdo, 
eircumfundo, macto, Wcupleto, instruo, imbuo, dfino, impertio, rSmunSror, honesto, 
hiinOro, etc.; as, 

Terrore impletur Africa, Africa is filled with terror. Sil. Instruxere epulis 
mensas, They furnished the tables with food. Ovid. Ut ejus dnimum his opin- 
ifmibus imbuas, That you should imbue his mind with these sentiments. Cic. 
Naves One rant auro, They load the ships with gold. Virg. Cumulat altdria donis, 
He heaps the altars with gifts. Id. Terra se gramme vestit, The earth clothes 
itself with grass. Id. Mollibus orndbat cornua sertis. Id. Multo clbo et potione 
completi. Cic. Libros puerilibus f abulis refercire. Id. Sdtidri delectatione non 
possum. Id. Homines sdturdti honoribus. Id. Senectus stipdta sttidiis juven-' 
tulis. Id. Me tanto honore kdnestas. Plaut. Equis Africam Idcupletdvit. Colum. 
Studium tuum nulla me ndvd voluptate affecit. Cic. Terram nox obruit umbris. 
Lucr. 

Rem. 2. Several verbs denoting to fill, instead of the ablative, sometimes 
take a genitive. See § 220, 3. 

Rem. 3. The active verbs induo, dono, impertio, aspergo, inspergo, circumdo, 
and eircumfundo, instead of the ablative of the thing with the accusative or 
the person, sometimes take an accusative of the thing, and a dative of the 

fierson ; as, Cui quum Deidnira tunicam induisset. Cic. Dondre munera civlbus. 
n the earliest writers dono, like condono, has sometimes two accusatives or an 
accusative of the person with the infinitive. 

II. A noun denoting that in accordance with which any thing is, 
or is done, is often put in the ablative without a preposition ; as, 

Nostra more, According to our custom. Cic. Institute suo Gesar copias suas 
eduxit, According to his practice. Coes. Id factum consilio meo, — by my ad- 
vice. Ter. Pace m fecit Ids conditiunlbus, — on these conditions. Nep. 

Note. The prepositions de, ex, pro, and secundum are often expressed with 
such nouns; a*, Neque est ficturus quidquam nisi de meo consilio. Cic. Ex 
cousuetudlne dliquia fdeere. Plin. Ep. l)ecet quidquid dgas, dgere pro virlbus. 
Cic. Si-cundum imturain vlvere. Id. 

III. The ablative denoting accompaniment, is usually joined with 
cum; as, 

Vdgdmur egentes cum conjugibus et liberis, Needv, we wander with our 
wives and children. Cic. Scape admirdri soleo cum hoc G. Laslio. Id. Julium 
cum his ad te Kteris tnisi. Id. Ingressus est cum gladio. Id. Romam veni cum 
febri. Cum occa.su solis copias edueere, — as soon as the sun set. 

REMARK. But cum is sometimes omitted before words denoting military 
and naval f.»rce>, when limited by an adjective; as, Ad cast r a Cwsdris omnibus 
copiis corUendertmt. Caes. hide tdto exercitu prdfectus. Liv. Eddem decern 
iambus C Farias oenU. Liv. And sometimes in military language cum is omit- 
ted, when accompanying circumstances are mentioned, and not persons; as, 
Outra clamore invdaunt. 



250 SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE OP CAUSE, ETC. § 250, 251. 

§ 350. 1. A noun, adjective, or verb, may be followed by 

the ablative, denoting in what respect their signification is taken ; 

as, 

Pietdte filius, consiliis parens, In affection a son, in counsel a parent. Cic. 
JReges nomine mdgis quam imperio, Kings in name rather than in authority. Nep. 
Oppidum nomine Bibrax. Caes. — Jure peritus, Skilled in law. Cic. Anxius ani- 
mo, Anxious in mind. Tac. Pedibus ceger, Lame in his feet. Sail. Crine ruber, 
niger ore. Mart. Fronte Icetus. Tac. Major natu. Cic. Prudentid non inferior, 
usu vero etiam superior. Id. Maximus natu. Liv. — Animo angi, To be troubled 
in mind. Cic. Contremisco lota mente et omnibus artubus, I am agitated in my 
whole mind and in every limb. Id. Captus mente, Affected in mind, i. e. de- 
prived of reason. Id. Allero oculo cdpitur. Liv. Ingenii laude floruit. Cic. 
Pollere nobilitdte. Tac. Animoque et corpdre torpet. Hor. 

Eemakk. This may be called the ablative of limitation, and denotes the rela- 
tion expressed in English by ' in respect of,' ' in regard to,' ' as to,' or ' in.' — 
Respecting the genitive of limitation after adjectives, see §213; — after verbs, 
4 220, 1: and respecting the accusative of limitation, see§ 231, R. 5; § 232, (3.); 
and § 234, II. 

2. (1.) Adjectives of plenty or want are sometimes limited by the 
ablative ; as, 

D5mus plena servis, A house full of servants. Juv. Dives agris, Rich in 
land. Hor. Ferax swculum bdnis artibus. Plin. — Inops verbis, Deficient in words. 
Cic. Orba frdtribus, Destitute of brothers. Ovid. Viduum arboribus sdlum. 
Colum. Nudus agris. Hor. For the genitive after adjectives of plenty and 
want, see § 213, R. 3-5. 

(2.) Verbs signifying to abound, and to be destitute, are followed 
by the ablative ; as, 

Scatentem belluis pontum, The sea abounding in monsters. Hor. Urbs redundat 
militibus, The city is full of soldiers. Auct. ad Her. Villa abundat porco, haido, 
agno, galllnd, lacte, cdseo, melle. Cic. — Virum qui pecunid egeat, A man who is 
in want of money. Id. Cdrere culpa, To be free from fault. Id. Mea addles- 
centia indiget illorum bdnd existimatione. Id. Abundat audacia, consilio et ra- 
tione deficitur. Id. 

Remakk 1. To this rule belong dbundo, exuMro, redundo, scdteo, affluo, cir- 
cumfluo, diffluo, superfiuo, suppedito, vdleo, vtgeo ; — cdreo, egeo, indigeo, vdco, de- 
J'icior, destituor, etc. 

Rem. 2. The genitive, instead of the ablative, sometimes follows certain 
verbs signifying to abound or to want. See § 220, 3. 

Rem. 3. To do any thing with a person or thing, is expressed in Latin by 
Jacere with de ; as, Quid de Tulliold mea fiet ? Cic. ; and more frequently by 
the simple ablative, or the dative ; as, Quid, hoc homlne or huic homini facialis f 
What can you do with this man ? Cic. Nescit quid facial auro, — what he shall 
do with the gold. Plaut. Quid me fiat parvi pendis, You care little what be- 
comes of me. Ter. — Sum is occasionally used in the same manner ; as, Metum 
ceperunt quidnam se futurum esset, — what would become of them. Liv. 

§ 251. A noun denoting that of which any thing is de- 
prived, or from which it is freed, removed, or separated, is often 
put in the ablative without a preposition. 

This construction occurs after verbs signifying to deprive, free, de- 
lar, drive away, remove, depart, and others which imply separation. * r> 



§ 251. SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, ETC. 251 

Note. The principal verbs of this class_ are arceo, pello, depello, expeUo, ab- 
dico, interdico, defendo, deturbo, dejicio, ejicio, absterreo, deterreo, mdveo, dmdveo, 
demdreo, remdveo, secerno, prdhibeo, sepdro, excludo, intercludo, dbeo, exeo, cedo, 
decedo, discedo, desistc, evddo, abstineo, spdlio, prlvo, orbo, libero, expedio, laxo, 
nudo, solvo, exsolvo, exdnero, levo, pur go, > to which maybe added the adjec- 
tives liber, immunis, purus, vacuus, and dlienus ; as, 

Nudantur arbdres foliis, The trees are stripped of leaves. Plin. Hoc me libera 
mt-tu, Free me from this fear. Ter. Tune earn philosdphiam sequere, quae spdliat 
nos judlcio, pr-ivai approbation^ orbat sensibus? Cic. Solvit se Teucria luctu. 
Yin:. Te litis sedibus arcebit. Cic. Q. Varium pellere possessiombus condtus 
est. Id. nines tribu remoti. Liv. Levdre se are alieno. Cic. Me lives ehdri 
secermmt popiilo. Hor. Animus omni liber ciira et angore. Cic. Utrumque 
nomine ahenisdmum. Id. When dlienus signifies ' averse ' or ' hostile to,' it takes 
the ablative with ab, or rarely the dative; as, Id dicit, quod illi causae maxime 
est dli'num. Id. In the sense of ' unsuited,' it may also be joined with the gen- 
itive; as, Quis dlienum putet ejus esse dignitatis? Id. — Alius too, in analogy 
with adjectives and verbs of separation, sometimes takes an ablative; as, Neve 
putes dlium sapiente bonoque bedtum. Hor. ; but this may also be referred to the 
ablative after comparatives. Cf. § 256, R. 14. 

Remark 1. Most verbs of depriving and separating are more or less fre- 
quently followed by ab, de, or ex, with the ablative of the thing, and always by 
ab with the ablative of the person; as, Tu Jupiter, hunc a tuis aris arcebis. Cic. 
Praxidium ex arce pepiilerunl. Nep. Aquam de agro pellere. Plin. Ex ingrdta 
clvitfite cedere. Cic. Arcem ab incendio llberdvii. Id. Solvere belluam ex ea- 
ten is. Auct. ad Her. — Sedes remotas a Germanis. Cass. Se ab Etruscis secer- 
nere. Liv. 

Rem. 2. Arceo, in the poets, sometimes takes the dative, see § 224, R. 2., 
and sometimes an infinitive; as, Pldgamque sedere cedendo arcebat. Ovid. — 
Prdhibeo and difendo take either the accusative of the person or thing to be 
defended, with the ablative of the thing to be warded off — or the reverse— 
dli quern or dliquid a penculo, or perlculum ab dliquo. They are also sometimes 
construed with the dative, see § 224, R. 2, and. sometimes with infinitive or 
subjunctive clauses. Prdhibeo has rarely two accusatives; as, Id te Jupiter 
prdhibessit. Plaut. ; or poeticallv the accusative and genitive ; as, Gaptai, prdhl- 
bvre Pamos aquilas. Sil. — Interdico takes the person either in the accusative or 
the dative, and the thine: in the ablative, dli quern or dlicui aliqua re; as 2 Quibus 
quum aqua et igni interdixissent. Ca?s. — Instead of the ablative, a subjunctive 
clause with ne, and more rarely with ut, sometimes follows interdico. — Absum, 
in like manner, takes the ablative with ab, and sometimes the dative; as, 
Curtce nesiio quid semper dbest rei. Hor. Cf. §224, R. 1. — Abdico takes some- 
times an ablative, and sometimes an accusative of the thing renounced; as, 
Abdirdre se miigistratu. Cic. Abdicdre magistratum. Sail. In Plautus, cir- 
cumduco, to cheat, takes the ablative of the thing. Intercludo, instead of an 
ablative of the tiling with an accusative of the person, sometimes takes an 
accusative of the thing and a dative of the person; as, ltinerum angustiw mul- 
titudini fugam intertluserant. Ca?s.: and, instead of the ablative of the thing, 
a subjunctive clause with quominus occurs: Intercludor doldre, qudminus ad te 
plura senbam. Cic. 

Rem. 3. Verbs which signify to distinguish, to differ, and to disagree, are 
generally construed with ab, but sometimes, especially in the poets, with the 
ablative" alone. 

Note. Verbs signifying to distinguish, etc., are distinguo, discerno, secerno, 
differo, dhcrepo, dissideo, disto, dissentio, discordo, dbhorreo, alieno, and dbdlieno. — 
Dusentio, dissideo, dtscrepo. and discordo are construed also with cum. — The 
verbs which signify to differ are sometimes construed with the dative; as, 
Itislat infldo senrrse amicus. Hor., and in like manner the adjective diversus; 
as, Nihil est tain Lysiae diversum, quam Isocrdtes. Quint. 



252 SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE OF PKICE AND TIME. § 252, 253. 



- 



ABLATIVE OF PEICE. 

§ 253. The price or value of a thing is put in the ablative, 
when it is a definite sum, or is expressed by a substantive ; as, 

Quum te trecentis talentis regi Cotto vendidisses, When you had sold yourself 
to king Cottus for three hundred talents. Cic. Vendidit hie auro patHam, This 
one sold his country for gold. Virg. Cibus uno asse vendlis. Plin. Gonstitit quad- 
ringentis millibus. Varr. Denis in diem assibus dnimum et corpus (mlliium) 
cestimdri. Tac. Levi momento cestimdre. Ca3s. Istuc verbum vile est viginti mi- 
nis. Plaut. Asse cdrum est Sen. Ep. 

Remark 1. The verbs which take an ablative of price or value are (1) cesti- 
mo, duco, fdcio, fio, hdbeo, pendo, puio, depute-, taxo : ( 2 ) emo, mercor, vendo, do, 
veneo, sto, consto, prosto, conduce-, l6co, vdleo, hio, and liceo. — To these must be 
added others, which express some act or enjoyment for which a certain price 
is paid; as, Ldvor quddrante. Triginta millibus GbUus habitat. Cic. Vix drachmis 
est obsondtus decern. Ter. Doceo talento, etc. So esse in the sense ' to be worth ' ; 
as, Sextante sal in Italia erat. 

Rem. 2. Respecting the genitive of price or value, when expressed in a gen- 
eral or indefinite manner, see § 214. 

Rem. 3. The price of a thing, contrary to the general rule, is often expressed 
indefinitely by a neuter adjective; as, magno, permagno, parvo, tantulo, plure, 
minimo, plurimo, vlli, vilidn, vilissimo, nimio, etc. ; as, Plure venit. Cic. Conduxit 
non magno ddmum. Id. These adjectives refer to some noun understood, as 
pretio, aire, and the like, which are sometimes expressed ; as, Parvo pretio ea 
vendidisse. Cic. — The adverbs bene, pukhre, rede, male, tare, etc., sometimes 
take the place of the genitive or ablative of price; as, Bene emere; recte ven- 
dere; optime vendere, etc. 

Rem. 4. Varro has used vdleo with the accusative ; as, Denarii dicti, quod 
denos atris valebant. 

Rem. 5. Muto and its compounds, commuto and permulo, are commonly con- 
strued like verbs of selling, the thing parted with being put in the accusative, 
and the thing received in exchange for it, in the ablative; as, Chdoniam glan- 
dem pingui mutdvit arista. Virg. But these cases are often reversed, so tbat the 
thing received is put in the accusative and the thing given for it in the abla- 
tive ; as, Cur valle permutem Sdblna dlvitias operosiores ? Why should I ex- 
change my Sabine valley for more wearisome riches ? Hor. — Sometimes in this 
construction cum is joined with the ablative. 

ABLATIVE OF TIME. 

§ 203* A noun denoting the time at or within which any 
thing is said to be, or to be done, is put in the ablative without 
a preposition ; as, 

Die quinto decessit, He died on the fifth day. Nep. Hoc tempore, At this 
time. Cic. Tertid Vigilia eruptionem fecerunt, They made a sally at the third 
watch. Cses. Ut hieme ndtiges, That you should sail in the winter. Cic. Prox- 
imo triennio omnes gentes subegit. Nep. Agamemnon cum unlversa Grcecid vix 
decern annis unam cepit urbem. Nep. 

Note 1. The English expression 'by day' is rendered in Latin either by 
interdiu or die; 'by night,' by noctu or nocte; and 'in the evening,' by respire 
or vespiri; see § 82, Exc. 5, (a.) Ludis is used for in tempdre Tudorum ; and 
Sdturndlibus, Ldtlnis, gladiator ibus, for ludis Sdturndllbus, etc. Other nonns not 
properly expressing time are used in that sense in the ablative either with or 
without in, as initio, principio, adventu and discessu dlicujus, comUiis, tumidtu, 
dello, pact) etc. ; or in initio, etc. But bello is more common without in, if it is 






§ 253. SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE OF TIME. 253 

joined with an adjective or a genitive; as, Bello Punico secundo, bello Latino- 
rum ; and so, also, pugnd Cannensi. So we say in pueritid, but omit in with 
an adjective; as, extremd pueritid. In is very rarely used with nouns express- 
ing a certain space of time; as, annus, dies, hdra, etc., for the purpose of de- 
noting the time of an event. In tempdre signifies either ' in distress,' or ' in 
time,' i. e. ' at the right time ' ; but in both cases tempdre alone is used, and 
tempdre in the sense of 'early' has even become an adverb, an earlier form of 
which was tempdri or tempen, whose comparative is temperius. 

Remark 1. When a period is marked by its distance before or after another 
fixed time, it may be expressed by ante or post with either the accusative or 
the ablative. — (a) The preposition is regularly placed , before the accusative, 
but after the ablative. If an adjective is used, the preposition is often placed 
between the adjective and the noun. In this connection the ordinal as well as 
the cardinal numbers may be used. Hence the English phrase ' after three 
years,' or 'three years after,' may be expressed in these eight ways; post ires 
annos, tribus annis post ; post tertium annum, tertio anno post; ires post annos, 
tribus post annis ; tertium post annum, tertio post anno. 

{b.) When ante or post stands last, an accusative maybe added to denote 
the time before or after which any thing took place ; as, Multis annis post de- 
cemviros. Cic. So Consul /actus est annis post Bomam conditam trecentis dud- 
dendndginta. 

Note 2. Post and ante sometimes precede the ablatives, as ante annis octo; 
post funis diibus; and also before such ablatives as are used adverbially, as 
post allqnanto ; ante jmulo. 

Note 3. Quam and a verb are sometimes added to post and ante in all the 
forms above specified ; e. g. tribus annis postquam venerat ; post ires annos quam 
venerat; tertio anno postquam venerat ; jx>st annum tertium quam venerat, etc.; 
all of which expressions signify ' three years after he had come.' Sometimes 
post is omitted ; as, tertio anno quam venerat. 

Note 4. Instead of postquam, ' after,' we may use ex quo, quum, or a relative 
agreeing with the preceding ablative; as, Ipse octo diebus, quibus has literas dd- 
bum, cum Ltpidi copias me conjungam ; i. e. in eight days after the date of this 
letter. Plane, in Cic. Fam. Mors Sex. Rosch quatriduo, quo is occisus est, 
Chrysdgdno nuntidtur, — four days after he had been kUled. Cic. Quern triduo, 
quum has ddbam literas, exspectdbam, — three days after the date of this letter. 
Plane, in Cic. In such cases in is sometimes joined with the ablative; as, In 
diebus pawns, quibus hcec acta sunt, mdritur. Ter. 

Rem. 2. The length of time before the present moment may be expressed by 
abhinc with the accusative, and, less frequently, the ablative; as, Quatstor fuisti 
abhinc annos quatuordecim. Cic. Cdmitiis jam abhinc triginta diebus hdbitis. Id. 
The same is also expressed by ante with the pronoixn hie ; as, ante hos sex 
nuW'dixisti mihi, — six months ago. Phaid. Ante is sometimes, used in- 
stead of abhinc : and the length of time before is sometimes expressed bv the 
ablative joined with hicoxille; as, Paucis his diebus, or paucis Mis diebus, — 
a few days ago. 

Rem. 3. The time at which anything is done, is sometimes expressed by the 
neuter accusative id, with a genitive; as, Venit id tempdris. Cic. So with a 
preposition; Ad id diei. Gell. See § 212, R. 3. 

Rem. 4. (a.) The time at or within which any thing is done, is sometimes, 
witli personal subjects, expressed by de, with the ablative; as, De tertid vigilia 
ad Iwttes conttndit, — in the third watch. Caes. Ut jugfdent hdmines surgunt de 
nocte htrdnes. Hor. So, also, with sub ; as, Ne sub ipsa prdfectione milites oppi- 
dum irrumjjerent, — at the very time of his departure. Caes. Subadventu Rdmdn- 
drutn, While the Romans were arriving. Id. 

(b.) The time within which anv thing occurs, is also sometimes expressed by 
intra with the accusative; as, jfrhnidiam partem natidnum subegit intra viginli 
dies. Plaut. Intra decimum diem, quam Pheras venerat, In less than ten days 
after... Liv. 

22 



254 SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE OP PLACE. § 254, 255. 

Rem. 5. The time within which a thing happens, is often expressed by the 
ablative with in ; especially (a) in connection with numerals; as, Bis in die 
sdturum fieri ; vix ter in anno nuntium audire ; and (5), as in the use of intra, 
to denote that the event happened before the time specified had fully expired. 

Rem. 6. Instead of in pueritid, ddolescentid, juventute, senectute, etc., in stat- 
ing the age at which a person performed any action, the concretes puer, ddo- 
lescens, juvenis, senex, etc., are commonly joined to the verb; as, On. Pompeius, 
adolescens se et patrem consilio servdvit. — So, also, adjectives ending in endrius 
are sometimes used in stating the number of years a person has lived; as, 
Cicero sexdgendrius. 

Por the ablative denoting duration of time, see J 236. 

ABLATIVE OF PLACE. 

§ 254:. The name of a town in which any thing is said to 

be, or to be done, if of the third declension or plural number, is 

put in the ablative without a preposition ; as, 

Alexander Babyl5ne est moriuus, Alexander died at Babylon. Cic. Inte're'rit 
multum — Thebis nutritus an Argis, — whether brought up at Thebes or at Argos. 
Hor. Ndtus Tibure vel Gabiis. Id. 

Remark 1. * In the country ' is expressed by rure, or more commonly by 
ruriy without a preposition ; as, Pater f ilium rtiri hdbitdre jussit. Cic. With an 
adjective only rure is used; as, Interdum nugdris rure pdterno. Hor. Cf. 
§ 221, N. 

Rem. 2. (a.) The preposition in is sometimes expressed with names of 
towns ; as, In Philippis quldam nuncidvit. Suet. 

(6.) Names of towns of the first and second declension, and singular number, 
and also ddmus and humus, are in like manner sometimes put in the ablative 
without in. See § 221, R. 2 and R. 3. — So, also, terra mdrtque, by land and by 
sea. In is also frequently omitted with Idco and Idcis, especially when joined 
with an adjective and having the meaning of ' occasion ' ; -as, Hoc Idco, multis 
Idcis, etc. — Libro joined with an adjective, as hoc, primo, etc, is used without 
in when the whole book is meant, and with in when only a portion is referred 
to. An ablative of place joined with toto, totd, totis, is generally used without 
in; as, Urbe totd gemxtus fit. Cic. Totd Asia vdgdtur. Id. Toto mdri. Id. But 
in such cases in is sometimes used. So cunctd Asia. Liv. 

Rem. 3. Before the names of countries, of nations used for those of countries, 
and of all other places in which any thing is said to be or to be done, except 
those of towns, and excepting also the phrases specified in the first and second 
remarks, the preposition in is commonly used ; as, Iphicrdtes in Thracia, vixit, 
Chares in Slgeo. Nep. Mure ego vlventem, tu dlcis in urbe bedtum. Hor. Aio hoc 
fieri in Graecia. Plaut. In Bactrianis Sogdianisy«e urbes condidit. Lucus in 
urbe fuit. Virg. But it is sometimes omitted by writers of every class and 
period; as, Mllltes stdtlvis castris hdbcbat. Sail. Magnis in laudibus fuit tola 
Grsecia. Nep. Populi sensus maxime theatro et spectaculis perspectus est. Cic. 
Pompeius se oppldo tenet. Id. In the poets and later prose writers this omis- 
sion is of very frequent occiirrence not only with names of towns but with 
ablatives of all nouns ausAvering to the question, where? as, Ndinta puppe 
sedens. Ovid. Ibam forte Via Sacra. Hor. Silvisque agrisque viisq/ie corpora 
fzda jdcent. Ovid. Medio alveo concursum est. Liv. — Fdris, out at the door, 
abroad, is properly an ablative of place ; as, Foris ccenat. Cic. Cf. § 237, 
R. 5, (c.) 

§ 2»i»5. 1. After verbs expressing or implying motion, the 
name of a town whence the motion proceeds, is put in the abla- 
tive, without a preposition ; as, 



§ 256. SYNTAX.— ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. 255 

Brundlsio prdfecti siimus, We departed from Brundisium. Cic. Didnysius 
iymnnus Svxacusis expulsus Corinthi pueros docebat. Id. Demdrdtus Tarquinios 
Corintho fugk. Id. Accept tuas litems ddtas Placentia. Id. Interim Roma per 
litems certior ft ; scil. ddtas or missas. Sail. J. 82. So, also, after a verbal 
noun ; as, Narbone reditus. Cic. 

Remark 1. The ablatives domo, humo, and rure or ruri, are used, 
like names of towns, to denote the place whence motion proceeds ; 
as, 

Dorao prdfectus, Having set out from home. Nep. Surgit humo juvenis, 
The vouth rises from the ground. Ovid. Rure hue odvenit. Ter. Si ruri we/. 
Id. Virgil uses domo with wide; as, Qui genus? unde ddmo? and Livy, in- 
stead of domo dbesse, has esse ab domo. With an adjective, rure, and not ruri, 
must be used. 

Rem. 2. With names of towns and ddmus and humus, when answering the 
question 'whence?' ab, ex, or de, is sometimes used; as, Ab Alexandria prd- 
fectus. Cic. Ex ddmo. Id. De vitifera venisse Vienna. Mart. Ab humo. Virg. 

Rem. 3. (a.) With other names of places whence motion proceeds, ab, ex, 
or de, is commonly expressed; as, me a portu praimlsit. Plaut. Ex Asia 
transis in Eurdpam. Curt. Ex castris prdficiscuntur. Cses. De Pomptlno, 
scil. prasdio. Cic. — So, also, before names of nations used for those of coun- 
tries; as, Ex Medis ad adversdriorum hibernacula pervenit. Nep. 

(b.) But the preposition is sometimes omitted ; as, Llterce Macedonia alldtas. 
Liv. Clossis Cypro odvenit. Curt. Cessissent loco. Liv. Nl cite vlcis et castellis 
proximu subventinn fdret. Id. Ite sacris, prdperate sacris, laurumque capillis 
ponite. Ovid. Flnlbus omnes prdsiluere suis. Virg. Advolvunt ingentes montl- 
bus ornos. Id. This omission of the preposition is most common in the poets 
aud later prose writers. 

2. The place by, through, or over which, after verbs of motion, com- 
monly follows per ; but frequently also it is put in the ablative with- 
out a preposition ; as, 

Per Thebas iter fecit. Nep. Exercitum vado transducit. Cass. His pontlbus 
pdbuldtum mittebot. Id. Tribuni militum porta Colllna urbem intrdvere sub signis, 
mhdmque urbe agmine in Aventinum pergunt. Liv. Legidnes Pennmis Cottianis- 
que Alpibus, pars monte Graio, trdducuntur. Tac. Equiles via breviore pr&- 
mlsi. Cic. 

ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. 



§ 2o6. 1. "Vfhen two objects are compared by means of the comparative 
gree, a con* 
times omittet 



degree, a conjunction, as quam, atque, etc., is sometimes expressed, and some- 
' id. 



2. The comparative degree, when quam is omitted, is followed 
by the ablative of that with which the comparison is made ; as, 

Nihil est virtute formosius, Nothing is more beautiful than virtue. Cic. Quis 
C. Laelio cdmior? Who is more courteous than C. Loelius? Id. 

Remark 1. The person or thing with which the subject of a pro- 
position is compared, is usually put in the ablative; as , 

Siu ere pulchriur Hit est, tu levior cortlce. Hor. Villus argentum est auro, vir- 
tutlbus aurum. Id. Tullus Hostilius ftrdcior Romulo fiat. Liv. Lacrima nihil 
ciiins drtscit. Oic. Quid mdgis est durum saxo, quid mollius unda? Ovid. Hoc 
v'mu ftnt minus ineptus. Ter. Albdnum, Maecenas, sive Fdlernum te mdgis ap- 
pusitis delectat. Hor. 



256 SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. § 256. 

Rem. 2. An object with, which a person or thing addressed is compared, is 
also put in the ablative ; as, fons Bandusice splendidior vitro ! Hor. 

Rem. 3. Sometimes the person or thing with which the subject of a proposi- 
tion is compared, instead of following it in the ablative, is connected with it by 
quam, and it is then put in the same case as the subject, whether in the nomi- 
native or the accusative; as, Ordtio quam habitus fuit miserdbilior. Cic. 
Affirmo nuttam esse laudem ampliorem quam earn. Id. So, also, when an abla- 
tive in the case absolute takes the place of the subject; as, Eodem (scil. dice) 
plura, quam gregario millte, tolerante. Tac. 

Rem. 4. If the person or thing which is compared with any object is neither 
the subject of the sentence nor the person addressed, quam is commonly used, 
and the object which follows it is then put in the nominative with sum, and 
sometimes in an oblique case to agree with the object with which it is com- 
pared; as, Meliorem, quam ego sum, suppono tibi. Plaut. Ego hominem ealli- 
diorem vldi neminem quam Phormionem. Ter. Adventus hostium fuit agris, 
quam urbi terribilior. Liv. Omnes fontes sestate, quam hieme, sunt gelidiores. 
Plin. Themistoclis nomen, quam Solonis, est illustrius. Cic. — The following 
example illustrates both the preceding constructions: — Ut tibi mulio majbri, 
quam Africanus fuit, me non multo minorem quam Laelium facile et in repOblica 
et in dmicitid adjunctum esse pdtidre. Cic. 

Rem. 5. (a.) The person or thing with which the object of an active verb is 
compared, though usually connected with it by quam, (R. 4,) is sometimes put 
in the ablative, especially in the poets, and frequently also even in prose, if the 
object is a pronoun, particularly a relative pronoun ; as, Altdlo, quo grdviorem 
inimzcum non hdbui, sororem dedit, He gave his sister to Attalus, than whom., etc. 
Curt. Hoc nihil grdtius fdcere potes. Cic. Causam enim suscepisti antzquiorem 
memoria tud. Id. Exegi m&numentum sere perennius. Hor. Cur olivum san- 
guine vlperino cautius vital ? Id. Quid prius dlcam solitis parentis laudibus ? Id. 
Mdjora vlribus audes. Virg. Nullam sacra vite prius severis arborem. Hor. 
Nullos his mallem ludos spectasse. Id. § 178, 3. 

(b.) The ablative instead of quam is never used with any other oblique case 
except the accusative, but quam is sometimes found, even where the ablative 
might have been used; as, Melior tutiorque est certa pax quam sperdta victoria. 
Liv. After quam, if the verb cannot be supplied from the preceding sentence, 
est, fuit, etc., must be added; as, Hmc verba sunt M. Varronis, quam fuit 
Claudius, doctioris. Gell. Drusum Germdnicum minorem ndtu, quam ipse erat, 
frdtrem amlsit. Sen. 

Rem. 6. (a.) Minus, plus, and amplius with numerals, and with other words 
denoting a certain measure or a certain portion of a thing, are used either with 
or without quam, generally as indeclinable words, without influence upon the 
construction, but merely to modify the number; as, Nonplus quam qudtuor 
millia effugerunt, not effugit. Liv. Fictores antiqui non sunt usi plus quam qud- 
tuor coloj'ibus, not plurtbus. Cic. 

(b.) Quam is frequently omitted with all cases; as, Minus duo millia homi- 
num ex tanto exercitu effugerunt. Liv. Mllites Romdni sape plus dimididti men- 
sis cXbdria ferebant. Cic. Quum plus annum wger fuissei. Liv. Sedecim non 
amplius eo anno legiotiibus defensum impenum est. Id. 

(c.) These comparatives, as in the preceding example, are sometimes in- 
serted between the numeral and its substantive, and sometimes, when joined 
with a negative, they follow both, as a sort of apposition ; as, Quinque millia 
armdtorum, non amplius, relictum erat prcesidium, — a garrison of five thousand 
soldiers, not more. Liv. So, also, longius ; Ccesar certior est f actus, magnas 
Gallorum copias non lonerius millia passuum octo ab hibernis suis abfuisse. Cajs. 
See § 236. 

(d.) ^ The ablative is sometimes used with these as with other comparatives; 
as, Dies triginta aut plus eo in navi fui. Ter. Triennio amplius. Cic. Hora 
amplius moliebantur. Id. Ne longius triduo ab castris absit. Caes. Apud Suevos 
non longius anno remdnere uno in loco incolendi causa licet. Id. Quum initio non 
amplius duobus millibus hubuisstt. Sail. 



§ 256. SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. 257 

Rem. 7. Quam is in like manner sometimes omitted, without a change of 
case, after major, minor, and some other comparatives ; as, Obsides ne minores 
octonum denum annorum neu majores quinum quadragenum,.... of not less 
than eighteen, nor more than forty-five years of age. Liv. Ex urbdno exerdtu, 
qui minores quinque et triginta annis erant, in naves impositi sunt. The genitive 
and ablative, in these and similar examples, are to be referred to § 211, R. 6. 
Longius ab urbe mille passuum. Liv. Annos ndtas magis quddrdginta. Cic. 

Rem. 8. When the second member of a comparison is an infinitive or a 
clause, quam is always expressed; as, Nihil est in aicendo mdjus quam ut faveat 
oratori auditor. Cic. 

Rem. 9. Certain nouns, participles, and adjectives, — as dpinione, spe, ex- 
spectdiione, fide, — dicto, sdlito, — cequo, credibili, necessdrio, vero, and justo, — are 
used in a peculiar manner in the ablative after comparatives; as, OpTnione 
cclcrius venturus esse dicitur, — sooner than is expected. Cass. Dicto citius tumi- 
da aqutira pldcat, Quicker than the word was spoken. Virg. Injurias gravius 
aequo habere. Sail. 

(a.) These ablatives supply the place of a clause; thus, gravius cequo is 
equivalent to gravius quam quod aiquum est. They are often omitted; as, The- 
mistocles hberius vivebat, scil. aquo. Nep. In such cases, the comparative may 
be translated by the positive degree, with too, quite, or rather, as in the above 
example — 'He lived too freely,' or ' rather freely.' Vdluptas quum major est 
atque longior, ornne dnimi lumen exstinguit, — when it is too great, and of too long 
continuance. Cic. So tristior, scil. sdlito, rather sad. 

(b.) The English word 'still,' joined with comparatives, is expressed by 
etiam or vel, and only in later prose writers by ddhuc ; as, Ut in corponbus mag- 
na; dissijnilitudines sunt, sic in dnimis exsistunt majores etiam varietdtes. Cic. 

Rem. 10. (a.) With inferior, the dative is sometimes used, instead of the 
ablative; as, Vir nulla arte cuiquam inferior. Sail. The ablative is also found; 
as, Ut humdnos casus virtute inferiores putes. Cic. But usually inferior is fol- 
lowed by quam ; as, Timdtheus belli laude non inferior full, quam pater. Cic. 
Gratia non inferior, quam qui umquam fuerunt amplissimi. Id. 

(6.) Qudlis, ' such as,' with a comparative, occurs poetically instead of the 
relative pronoun in the ablative; as, Nardo perunctum, quale non perfectius 
meat Idbordrint mdnus ; instead of quo. Hor. Epod. 5, 59. Animx quales neque 
candidiorts terra tulit ; for qulbus. Id. Sat. 1, 5, 41. 

Rem. 11. Quam pro is used after comparatives, to express disproportion; as, 
Proelium atrocius quam pro numero pugnantium, The battle was more severe 
than was proportionate to the number of the combatants. Liv. Minor, quam 
pro tiimultu, cazdes. Tac. 

Rem. 12. When two adjectives or adverbs are compared with_ each other, 
both are put in the comparative ; as, Triumphus clarior quam gratior, A tri- 
umph more famous than acceptable. Liv. Fortius quam f elicius beltum gesse- 
runt. So, also, when the comparative is formed bv means of magis ; as, Magis 
audacter quam pa.ra.te ad dicendum veniebat. Cic. — Tacitus uses the positive in 
one part of the proposition ; as, Speciem excelsai gldrwe, vehementius quam caute 
appetebat ; or even in both ; as, Claris mdjoribus quam vetustis. 

Rem. 13. (a.) Pdtius and magis are sometimes joined pleonastically with 
malle and pi-aistdre, and also with comparatives ; as, Ab omnibus se desertos po- 
tius quam abs te defensos esse malunt. Cic. Qui magis vere vincere quam diu 
imperdre malit. Liv. Ut emdri p5tius quam servire prsestaret. Cic. Mini quawis 
fuga potius quam ulla prdvincia esset optatior. Id. Quis magis queat esse bea- 
tior? Virg. 

(6.) So, also, the prepositions prce, ante, prceter, and supra, are sometimes 
used with a comparative; as, Units pree ceteris fortior exsurgit, Apul. Scelere 
ante alios immdnior omnes. Virg. They also occur with a superlative; as, 
Ante alios cdrissimus. Nep. As these prepositions, when joined with the 
positive, denote comparison, they seem in such examples to be redundant. 
See § 127. 

2fi* 



258 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. § 257. 

Eem. 14. Alius is sometimes in poetry treated as a comparative, and con- 
strued with the ablative instead of atque with the nominative or accusative ; 
as, Neve putes dlium sapiente honbque bedtum. Hor. Alius Lysippo. Id. But 
compare § 251, N. 

Eem. 15. By the poets ac and atque are sometimes used instead of quam 
after comparatives ; as, Quanto constantior idem in vitiis, tanto levius miser ac 
prior Hie, qui, etc. Hor. Arctius atque hederd procera adstringitur Ilex. Id. 

Rem. 16. The degree of difference between objects compared is 
expressed by the ablative : — 

(1.) Of substantives; as, Minor uno mense, Younger by one month. Hor. 
Sesquipede quam tu longior, Taller than you by a foot and a half. Plaut. 
JStbernia dimidio minor quam Britannia. Ca?s. Dimidio minoris constdbit, It 
will cost less by half. Cic. Quam mdlestum est uno dlgito plus habere /....to have 
one finger more, i. e. than we have, to have six fingers. Id. — but the expression 
is ambiguous, as it might mean ' to have more than one finger.' Superat caplte 
et cervlcibus altis. Virg. 

(2.) Of neuter adjectives of quantity and neuter pronouns, in the singular 
number. Such are tanto, quanto, quo, eo, hoc, multo, parvo, paulo, nimio, dli- 
quanto, tantulo, altero tanto (twice as much); as, Multo doctior es patre, Thou 
art (by) much more learned than thy father. The relative and demonstrative 
words, quanto — tanto, quo — eo, or quo — hoc, signifying l by how much — by so 
much,' are often to be translated by an emphatic the ; as, Quanto sumus superi- 
ores, tanto nos submissius geramus, The more eminent we are, the more humbly 
let us conduct ourselves : lit. by how much — by so much — . Cic. Eo grdvior 
est dolor, quo culpa est major. Id. But the relative word generally precedes 
the demonstrative; as, Quo difficilius, hoc pro&cldrius. Id. Poetically, also, 
quam mdgis — tarn mdgis are used instead of quanto mdgis — tanto mdgis. Virg. 
jEn. 7, 787: and quam mdgis — tanto mdgis. Lucr. 6, 459. — Iter multo fdcilius, — 
much easier. Cses. Parvo brevius, A little shorter. Plin. Eo mdgis, The more. 
Cic. Eo minus. Id. Istoc mdgis vdpuldbis, So much the more. Plaut. Via altero 
tanto longior, — as long again. Nep. Multo id maximum fuit. Liv. 

(3.) The ablative of degree is joined not only with comparatives but with 
verbs which contain the idea of comparison ; as, mdlo, prcesto, stipero, excello, 
antecello, antecedo, and others compounded with ante ; and also with ante and 
post, in the sense of ' earlier ' and ' later ' ; as, Multo prcestat. Sail. Post paulo, 
A little after. Id. Multo ante lucis adventum, Long before — . Id. Multis parti- 
bus is equivalent to multo ; as, Numero multis partibus esset inferior. Cses. 

Note. The accusatives multum, tantum, quantum, and dliquantum, are some- 
times used instead of the corresponding ablatives ; as, Aliquantum est ad rem 
dvidior. Ter. Multum improbidres sunt. Plaut. Quantum ddmo infetior, tan- 
tum gloria superior evdsit. Val. Max. Cf. § 232, (3.) — So longe, 'far,' is fre- 
quently used for multo ; as, Longe melior. Virg. Longe et multum antecellere. 
Cic. So, pars pedis sesqui major, — longer by one half. Id. 

ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

§ 957'. A noun and a participle are put in the ablative, 
called absolute, to denote the time, cause, means, or concomitant 
of an action, or the condition on which it depends ; as, 

Pythdgdras, Tarquinio regnante, in ltdliam venit, Pythagoras came into Italy, 
in the reign of Tarquin. Cic. Lupus, stimulante fame, captat dv'de, Hunger in- 
citing, the wolf seeks the fold. Ovid. Mllites, pecoi*e e longinquioribas rlcis 
adacto, extremam fdmem sustentdbant. Cass. Hac oratione hablta, concilium 
dimisit. Id. Galli x re cognlta, obsididnem relinquunt. Id. Virtute excepta, nihil 
amicitid praistdbihus putetis. Cic. 



§ 257. SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 259 

Note 1. The Latin ablative absolute may be expressed in English by a sim- 
ilar construction, but it is commonly better to translate it by a clause connect- 
ed bv when, since, while, although, after, as, etc., or by a verbal substantive; 
as, Te adjuvante, With thy assistance. Non— nisi te adjuvante, Only with thy 
assistance, or not without thy assistance. Te non adjuvante, Without thy as- 
sistance. Cf. $ 274, R. 5, (c.) 

Remark 1. This construction is an abridged form of expression, 
equivalent to a dependent clause connected by quum, si, etsi, quam- 
quam, quamvis, etc. 

Thus, for Tarquinio regnante, the expression dum Tarquinius regndbat might 
be used ; for hac drdtione hdbitd ; — quum hanc ordtionem hdbuisset, or quum hwc 
drdtio hdbita esset, — concilium dimisit. The ablative absolute may always be 
resolved into a proposition, by making the noun or pronoun the subject, and 
the participle the predicate. 

Rem. 2. This construction is common only with present and per- 
fect participles. Instances of its use with participles in rus and dus 
are comparatively rare ; as, 

Caesare venturo, Phosphore, redde diem. Mart. Irrupturis tarn infestis na- 
tionibus. Liv. Quum concio plausum, meo n5mine recltando, dedisset, — when my 
name was pronounced. Cic. Quum immolanda Iphlgenla tristis Calchas esset. 
Id. Quis est enim, qui, nullis officii prseceptis tradendis, phildsdphum se audeat 
dicer e — without propounding any rules of* duty. Cic. Cf. § 274, R. 5, (c.) and 
R. 9. 

Rem. 3. (a.) A noun is put in the ablative absolute, only when it 
denotes a different person or thing from any in the leading clause. 
Cf. § 274, 3, (a.) 

(b.) Yet a few examples occur of a deviation from this principle, especially 
with a substantive pronoun referring to some word in the leading clause; as, 
Se audiente, scribit Thucydides. Cic. Legio ex castris Varrdnis, adstante et in- 
Spectante ipso, signa sustulit. Caes. Me duce, ad hunc voti finem, me mllite, 
vent. Ovid. So M. Porcius Cdto, vivo qudque Scipione, alldtrdre ejus magnitudi- 
nem sdlitus erat. Liv. 

Xotk 2. Two participles must not be put together in the ablative absolute 
agreeing with the same noun. Thus, we may say Porcia. sape maritum cogi- 
tantem invenerat, but not, Porcia marito cogitante invento. 

Note 3. Instead of the ablative absolute denoting a cause, an accusative 
with Ob or propter occurs in Livy and in later writers ; as, Cdndpum condidere 
Spartdni, ob st-pultum illic rectorem ndvis Cs\n6pum. Tac. Decemviri libros 
Sibyll'tnos inspicere jussi sunt propter territos homines ndvis prodigiis. Liv. 

Rem. 4. The ablative absolute serves to mark the time of an ac- 
tion, by reference to that of another action. If the present participle 
is used, the time of the action expressed by the participle, is the same 
as that of the principal verb. The perfect participle and the future 
in rus, denote respectively an action as prior or subsequent to that 
expressed by the principal verb. 

Thus in the preceding examples — Pythdqdras, Tarquinio regnante, in Itdliam 
venit, Pythagoras came into Italy during t)ie reign of Tarquinius. Galli, re cog- 
nlta, obsididnem relinquunt, The Gauls, having learned the fact, abandon the 
siege. So, Rex dpum non nisi migraturo examine fdras procedit, The king-bee 
does not go abroad, except when a swarm is about to emigrate. Plin. 



260 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. § 257. 

Note 4. Non prius quam, non nisi, ut, velut, and tamquam, are sometimes 
joined with the participle; as, Tiberius excessum Augusti non prius pdlam fecit, 
quam Agrippa juvene interempto, — not until. Suet. Galli keti, ut explordta. vic- 
toria, ad castra Romdnorum pergunt. Caes. Antiochus, tamquam non transituris 
in Asiam Rdmdnis, etc. Liv. 

Rem. 5. (a.) The construction of the ablative absolute with the 
perfect passive participle, arises frequently from the want of a par- 
ticiple of that tense in the active voice. 

Thus, for ' Caesar, having sent forward the cavalry, was following with all his 
forces,' we find, ' Cassar, equitatu praemisso, subsequebdtur omnibus copiis.' 

(b.) As the perfect participle in Latin may be used for both the perfect 
active and the perfect passive participles in English, its meaning can, in many 
instances, be determined only by the connection, since the agent with a or ab 
is generally not expressed with this participle in the ablative absolute, as it is 
with other parts of the passive voice. Thus, Ccesar, his dictis, concilium dimisit, 
might be rendered, ' Caesar, having said this, or this having been said (by some 
other person), dismissed the assembly.' 

(c.) As the perfect participles of deponent verbs correspond to perfect active 
participles in English, no such necessity exists for the use of the ablative ab- 
solute with them ; as, Ccesar, haec locutus, concilium dimisit. In the following 
example, both constructions are united: Itdque....agro3 Eemorum depopulati, 
omnibus vicis, aidificiisque incensis. Caes. 

Rem. 6. The perfect participles of neuter deponent verbs, and some also of 
active deponents, which admit of both an active and a passive sense, are used 
in the ablative absolute ; as, Ortd luce. Caes. Vel exstincto vel elapso ammo, 
nullum residere sensum. Cic. Tarn multis gloriam ejus adeptis. Plin. Literas 
ad exercitus, tamquam adepto principatu, misit. Tac. 

i Rem. 7. (a.) As the verb sum has no present participle, two 
nouns, or a noun and an adjective, which might be the subject and 
predicate of a dependent clause, are put in the ablative absolute 
without a participle ; as, 

Quid, adolescentulo diice, efficere possent, What they could do under the 
guidance of a youth. Caes. Me suasore atque impulsore, hoc factum, By my 
advice and instigation. Plaut. Hannibdle vivo, While Hannibal was living. Nep. 
Invitd Minerva, in opposition to one's genius. Cic. Gxlo sereno, when the 
weather is clear. Virg. Me igndro, without my knowledge. Cic. With names 
of office, the concrete noun is commonly used in the ablative absolute, rather 
than the corresponding abstract with in to denote the time of an event; as, 
Romam venit Mario consule, He came to Rome in the consulship of Marius. Cic. 

(b.) The nouns so used as predicates are by some grammarians considered 
as supplying the place of participles by expressing in themselves the action of 
a verb. Such are' dux, cdmes, adjulor and adjutrix, auctcr, testis, judex, inter- 
pres, mdgister and mdgistra, preceptor and prmceptrix ; as, duce natura., in the 
sense of ducente ndturd, under the guidance of nature ; judice Polybio, according 
to the judgment of Polybius. 

Rem. 8. A clause sometimes supplies the place of the noun ; as ; Nondum 
cornperto quam in regionem venisset rex. Liv. Audito venisse nuncium. Tac. 
Vale dicto. Ovid. This construction, however, is confined to a few participles; 
as, audito, cognito, cornperto, explordto, desperdto, nuncidto, dicto, edicto. But the 

f)lace of such participle is sometimes supplied by a neuter adjective in the ab- 
ative; as, Incerto prm tenebris quid peter e.nt. Liv. Cf. R. 7, (a.) Hand cuiquam 
dubio quin hostium essent. Id. Juxta periculoso vera an ficta promeret. Tac. 

Rem. 9. (1.) The noun in the ablative, like the subject nominative, is some- 
times wanting; (a) when it is contained in a preceding clause; as, Atticus Servi- 
liarn, Bruti mdtrem, non minus post mortem ejus, quam florente, cOluit, scil. eo, 



§ 258. SYNTAX. CONNECTION OF TENSES. 261 

i. e. Bruto. Nep. (b) When it is the general word for person or persons fol- 
lowed by a descriptive relative clause; as, Hannibal Jberum capias trajccit, 
praemissis, qui Alpium transitus specular entur. Liv. (c) When the participle in 
the neuter singular corresponds to the impersonal construction of neuter verbs 
in the passive voice ; as, In amnis transgressu, multum certato, Bardesdnes vlcit. 
Tac. Mihi, errato, nulla venia, recte facto, exigua laus proponitur. Cic. Quum, 
nondum pdlam facto, v'ni mortulque promiscue compter dr entur. Liv. Nam jam 
cptdte ed sum, ut nun siet, peccato, mi ignosci aiquum; i. e. si peccatum fuerit. Ter. 
Cf. $ 274, R. 5, (6.) 

(2.) So in descriptions of the weather; as, Tranquillo, scil. mdri, the sea 
being tranquil. Liv. Sereno, scil. coelo, the sky being clear. Id. Aranei sereno 
texunt, nubilo texunt, — in clear and in cloudy weather. Plin. Substantives 
when used thus are to be considered as ablatives of time ; as, Comitiis, ludis, 
Circtnsibus. Suetonius has used proscriptione in the sense of ' during the pro- 
scription.' So pace et Principe. Tac. lmperio populi Romdni. Caes. 

Rem. 10. This ablative is sometimes connected to the preceding clause by a 
conjunction ; as, Cuesar, quamquam obsidiSne Massiliai retardante, brevi tdmen 
omnia subegit. Suet. Decemviri non ante, quam perlatis legibus, deposlturos im~ 
perium esse aiebant. Liv. 

Rem. 11. A predicate ablative is sometimes added to passive participles of 
naming, choosing, etc. § 210, (3.); as, Hasdrubdle imperatore suffecto. Liv. 

CONNECTION OF TENSES. 

§ 258. Tenses, in regard to their connection, are divided 
into two classes — -principal and historical. 

A. The principal tenses are, the present, the perfect definite, 
and the two futures. 

B. The historical, which are likewise called the preterite 
tenses (§ 145, N. 2.), are the imperfect, the historical perfect, 
and the pluperfect. 

I. In the connection of leading and dependent clauses, only 
tenses of the same class can, in general, be united with each other. 
Hence : — 

1. A principal tense is followed by the present and perfect defi- 
nite, and by the periphrastic form with sim. And : — 

2. A preterite tense is followed by the imperfect and pluperfect, 
and by the periphrastic form with essem. 

Note. The periphrastic forms in each class supply the want of subjunctive 
futures in the regular conjugation. 

The following examples will illustrate the preceding rules: — 

(a.) In the first class. Scio quid dgas. Scio quid egeris. Scio quid acturus 
sis.—Awiai'ptiddgas, I have heard' what you are doing. Audlvi quid egeris. 
Audivi quid acturus sis. — Audiam quid dgas, etc. — Audlvero quid dgas, etc. 

{b.) In the second class. Sciebum quid age res. Sciebam quid eqisses. Scirbam 
q>nd iicturus esses.— Awllri quid ageres, I heard what vou were 'doing. Audlvi 
quid egii&e*. Audvri quid acturus esses.— Audlveram quid dgeres, etc. 

The following may serve as additional examples in the first class: viz. of principal 
tetues depending on, 

(1.) The Present; as, Non sum ita hebes, ut isluc dlcam. Cic. Quantum 
dulOrem acceperim, tu existimdre potes. Id. Nee dublto quin reditus ejus rtipub- 
Ucui sulutdris futurus sit. Id. 



262 SYNTAX. — CONNECTION OP TENSES. § 258. 

(2.) The Pkrfect Definite; as, Satis provlsum est, ul ne quid dgere pos- 
sint. Id. Quis musicis, quis huic studio lilerdrum se dedldit, quin omnem illdrum 
artium vim comprehenderit. Id. Defectidnes sdlis prsedictae sunt, qua, quanta, 
quando futurse sint. Id. 

(3.) The Futures; as, Sic fdcillime, quanta or dtdrum sit, semperque fuerit 
paucitas, judicabit. Id. Ad quos dies rediturus sim, scribam ad te. Id. Si 
scieris aspldem latere uspiam, et velle dlxquem imprudentem super earn assidere, 
cujus mors tibi emdlumentum factiira sit, imprdbe feceris, nisi monueris, ne assi- 
deat. Id. 

The following, also, are additional examples in the second class, viz. of preterite tenses 
depending on, 

(1.) The Imperfect ; as, Unum illud extimescebam, ne quid turpiter face- 
rem, vel jam eflecissem. Cic. Non enim dubitabam, quin eas libenter lecturus 
esses. Id. 

(2.) The Historical Perfect; as, Veni in ejus villam ut libros inde prome- 
rem. Id. Haic quum essent nuntiata, Valerius classem extemplo ad ostium jlumi- 
nis duxit. Liv. 

(3.) The Pluperfect; as, Pdvor ceperat milites, ne mortxferum esset mi- 
nus. Liv. Ego ex ipso audieram, quam a te llbSrdliter esset traetatus. Cic. Non 
satis miki constiterat, cum dliqudne dnimi mei mdlestid, an pdiius libenter te Athe- 
nis vlsurus essem. Id. 

Eemark I. (a.) When the present is used in narration for the historical 
perfect, it may, like the latter, be followed by the imperfect; as, Legdtos mit- 
tunt, ut pdcem impetrarent. Caes. 

(b.) The present is also sometimes followed by the perfect subjunctive in its 
historical sense ; as, Pandlte nunc Hellcdna, dene, cantusque movete, Qui bello 
exciti rgges, quaz quemque secutai Compleriht campos acies. Virg. 

Eem. 2. The perfect definite is often followed by the imperfect, even when 
a present action or state is spoken of, if it is possible to conceive of it in its pro- 
gress, and not merely in its conclusion or result ; and especially when the agent 
had an intention accompanying him from the beginning to the end of the 
action; as, Feci hoc, ut intelligeres, I have done this that you might under- 
stand; i. e. such was my intention from the beginning. Sunt philGsophi et fue- 
runt, qui omnlno nullam habere censerent humdndrum rerum procurationem 
deos. Cic. 

Eem. 3. (a.) The historical perfect is not regularly followed by the perfect 
subjunctive, as the latter is not, in general, used in reference to past action in- 
definite. 

(b.) These tenses are, however, sometimes used in connection, in the narra- 
tive of a past event, especially in Livy and Cornelius Nepos ; as, Factum est, 
ut plus quam collegm Miltiddes valuerit. Nep. 

(c.) The imperfect and perfect are even found together after the historical 
perfect, when one action is represented as permanent or repeated, and the 
other simply as a fact; as, Adeo nihil miserlti sunt, ut incursidnes factrent et 
Veios in dnimo habuerint oppugndre. Liv. 

(c/.) The historical perfect may even be followed by the present, when a 
general truth is to be expressed, and not merely one which is valid for the time 
indicated by the leading verb; as, Antidcho pdcem petenii ad p rid res conditiones 
nihil additum, Afrudno praidicante, neque Rdmdnis, si vincantur, animus minui, 
neque, si vincant, secundis rebus insdlescere. Just. 

_ Pem. 4. (a.) As present infinitives and present participles depend for their 
time upon the verbs with which they are connected, they are followed by such 
tenses as those verbs may require; as, Apelles pictdres qudque eos peccare 
dicebat, qui non sentirent, quid esset satis. Cic. Ad ie scripsi, te leviter accusaus 
tit eo } quod de me cito credldisses. Id. 



§ 259. SYNTAX. — INDICATIVE MOOD. 263 

(b.) In like manner the tense of the subjunctive following the infinitive 
future is determined by the verb on which such infinitive depends; as, Sol 
Phaeihonti J'llio facturum se esse dixit quicquid optasset. Cic. 

Rem. 5. (a.) The perfect infinitive follows the general rule, and takes after 
it a principal or a preterite tense, according as it is used in the definite or in 
the historical sense; as, Arbilrdmur nos ea prsestitisse, quae ratio et doctrina 
prajscripserit. Cic. Est quod gaudeas te in ista Idea venisse, ubi dllquid sdpere 
vlderere. Id. 

(b.) But it may sometimes take a different tense, according to Rem. 2; as, 
Jta miki videor et esse Deos, et quales essent satis ostendisse. Cic. 

II. Tenses belonging to different classes may be made dependent 
on each other, when the sense requires it. 

(a.) Hence a present or perfect definite may follow a preterite, when the re- 
sult of a past action extends to the present time ; as, Ardebat autem Horlensius 
cupidildte dicendi sic, ut in nullo umquam Jtagrantius studium viderim; i. e. that 
up to this time I have never seen. Cic. And, on the other hand, a preterite 
may follow a present to express a continuing action in the past; as, Scltote 
oppidum esse in Sieilid nidlum, quo in oppido non isti delecta mulier ad libldlnem 
esset: (esset here alludes to the whole period of Verres' praetorship.) Cic. 

(b.) But without violating the rule which requires similar tenses to depend 
upon each other, the hypothetical imperfect subjunctive, may be followed by 
the present or perfect subjunctive, since the imperfect subjunctive refers to the 
present time; as, Memdrdre possem quibus in locis maximas hostium copias 
]>opulus Pomdnus parvd mdnu fuderit. Sail. Possem here differs from possum 
only by the hypothetical form of the expression. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

§ 5J59- The indicative is used in every proposition in which 
the thing asserted is represented as a reality. 

Note. Hence it is used even in the expression of conditions and suppositions 
with si, nisi, etsi, and edamsi, when the writer, without intimating his own 
opinion, supposes a thing as actual, or, with nisi, makes an exception, which, 
only for the sake of the inference, he regards as actual; as, Mens aut plane 
negligenda est, si omnino exstinguit dnimum, aut etiam optanda, si dliquo turn 
deducit, ubi sit fuiurus aiternus. Cic. Adhuc certe, nisi ego insanio, stulte omnia 
et incaute fiunt. Id. — It is likewise used in interrogations. 

Kemark 1. The several tenses have already heen defined, and their usual significations 
have been given in the paradigms. They are, however, sometimes otherwise rendered, 
one tense being apparently used with the meaning of another, either iu the same or in a 
different mood. Thus, 

(1.) (a.) The present is often used for the historical perfect in narration, see 
§ 14"), I. 3. — [b.) It is sometimes used also for the future to denote the certainty 
of an event, or to indicate passionate emotion. So 2 also, when the leading sen- 
tence contains the present imperative, si is often joined with the present in- 
stead of the future; as, dij\ nde si pdtes. — (c.) The present is also used for the 
imperfect or perfect, when it is joined with dum ' while ' ; as, Dum ego in Sici- 
lid sum, nulla stdtua dfjecta est. Cic. It is even so used by Livy in transitions 
from one event to another; as, Dum in Asia bellum geritur, ne in JEtdlis quidem 
quvtaz res fuerant. But the preterites are sometimes used with dum ' while ' ; 
and dum ' as long as ' is regularly joined with the imperfect. 

(2.) (a.) The perfect, in its proper signification, i. e. as a perfect definite, 
denotes an act or state terminated at the present time. Thus Horace, at the 
close of a work, says, Exegi invnumentum aire perennius; and Ovid, in like cir- 
cumstances, Jamque ojms exegi. So, also, Panthus in Virgil, in order to de- 



264 SYNTAX. — INDICATIVE MOOD. § 259. 

note the utter ruin of Troy, exclaims, Fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium, i. e. we are no 
longer Trojans, Ilium is no more. — (b.) The perfect indefinite or historical per- 
fect is used in relating past events, when no reference is to be made to the 
time of other events; as, Ccesar Rublconem transiit, Caesar crossed the Kubicon. 
(c.) As in the epistolary style the imperfect is used instead of the present, 
when an incomplete action is spoken of (\ 145, II. 3), so the historical perfect 
is in like circumstances employed instead of the present, when speaking of a 
completed action. With both the imperfect and perfect, when so used, however, 
the adverbs nunc and etiamnunc may be used instead of tunc and etiamtum. 

(d.) The historical perfect is sometimes used for the pluperfect in narration; 
as, Sed postquam aspexi, illico cognovi, But after I (had) looked at it, I recog- 
nized it immediately. Ter. — This is the usual construction after postquam or 
postedquam, ubi, ubi primum, ut, ut primum, quum primum, simid, simid ut, simul 
ac, or simul atque, all of which have the signification of ' as soon as,' and some- 
times after pnusquam. But when several conditions are to be expressed in past 
time, the pluperfect is retained after these particles ; as, Idem simulac se remls- 
erat, neque causa suberat, qudre dnimi labdrem perferret, luxiiriosus reperiebdtur. 
Nep. So, also, postquam is joined with the pluperfect, when a definite time 
intervenes between events, so that there is no connection between them; as, 
Hannibal anno tertio, postquam domo profugerat, cum quinque ndvibus Africam 
accessit. Id. — In a very few passages the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive 
are joined with postquam. 

(3.) The pluperfect sometimes occurs, where in English we use the historical 

fierfect; as, Dixerat, et spissis noctis se condtdit umbris, She (had) said, and hid 
lerself in the thick shades of night. Virg. Sometimes, also, it is used for the 
historical perfect to express the rapidity with which events succeed each other; 
so, also, for the imperfect, to denote what had been and still was. 

(4.) The future indicative is sometimes used for the imperative; as, Valebis, 
Farewell. Cic. And: — 

(5.) The future perfect for the future; as, Alio loco de dratdrum dnimo et in- 
juriis videro, I shall see (have seen).... Cic. This use seems to result from 
viewing a future action as if already done, and intimates the rapidity with 
which it will be completed. 

Bem. 2. When a future action is spoken of either in the future, or in the im- 
perative, or the subjunctive used imperatively, and another future action is 
connected with it, the latter is expressed by the future tense, if the actions 
relate to the same time; as, Ndturam si sequemur ducem, numquam aberrabi- 
mus. Cic. ; but by the future perfect, if the one must be completed before the 
other is performed ; as, De Carthdgine vereri non ante desinam, quam Mam ex- 
cisam esse cognSvero. Cic. In English the present is often used instead of the 
future perfect; as, Fdciam si potero, I will do it, if I can. Ut sementem feceris, 
ila metes, As you sow, so you will reap. Cic. 

Bem. 3. In expressions denoting the propriety, practicability or advantage 
of an action not performed, the indicative of the preterites (§ 145, N. 2.) is used, 
where the English idiom would have led us to expect the imperfect or pluper- 
fect subjunctive. 

(a.) This construction occurs with the verbs dportet, necesse est, debeo, conve- 
nit, possum, decet, licet, reor,puto; and with par, fas, copia, aquum, j 'usttcm, 
consentdneum, satis, sdtius, cequius, melius, utilius, optdbilius, and optimum — est, 
erat, etc. 

(b.) In this connection the imperfect indicative expresses things which are 
not, but the time for which is not yet past ; the historical perfect and the 
pluperfect indicative, things which have not been, but the time for which is 
past; as, Ad mortem te duci jam pridem oportebat, i. e. thy execution was 
necessary and is still so; hence it ought to take place. Cic. — Longe utilius fuit 
augusdas dditus occiipdre, It would have been much better to occupy the pass. 
Curt. Cutilina erupit e sendtu triumphans gaudio, quern omnlno vivum illinc exire 
non oportuerat. Cic. 



§ 260. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 265 

(c.) In both the periphrastic conjugations, also, the preterites of the indica- 
tive have frequently the meaning of the subjunctive; as, Tarn bdna constanter 
prceda tenenda fuit* — ought to have been kept. Ovid. This is more common in 
hypothetical sentences than in such as are independent. 

{d.) The indicative in such connections is retained, even when a hypotheti- 
cal clause with the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive is added, and it is here 
in particular that the indicative preterites of the periphrastic conjugations are 
employed ; as, Qua si dubia aut procul essent, tamen omnes bonos relpublicce con- 
sulere "decebat. Sail. Quodsi Cn. Pompeius privates esset hoc tempdre, tamen 
erat mittendus. Cic. — Deleri totus exercitus potiait, si fugientes persecuti victores 
essent, Liv. Quas nisi mdnumisisset, toi^mentis etiam dedendi fuerunt. Cic. Site 
non iim'nissem, periturus per prcecipitia fui. Petr. But the subjunctive also is 
admissible in such cases in the periphrastic conjugations. 

Rem. 4: (1.) The preterites of the indicative are often used for the pluper- 
fect subjunctive, in the conclusion of a conditional clause, in order to render a 
description more animated. They are so used, 

{a.) When the inference has already partly come to pass, and would have 
been completely realized, if something else had or had not occurred, whence 
the adverb jam is frequently added ; as, Jam fames quam pestilentia tristior 
erat: ni annonce. fdret subventum, — would have been worse. Liv. The same is 
expressed by the verb ccepi instead of jam ; as, Britanni circumire terga vincen- 
titnn ca'prrant, «», etc. Tac. And without jam ; Effigies Pisonis traxerant in 
Gemonias ac divellebant (would have entirely destroyed them) ni, etc. Id. 

(b.) The perfect and pluperfect are likewise used in this sense, and a thing 
which was never accomplished is thus, in a lively manner, described as com- 
pleted; as, FA peractum erat bellum sine sanguine, si Pompeium opprtmere 
Bruncksii (Csesar) pdtuisset. Hor. — The imperfect indicative is rarely used, 
also, for the imperfect subjunctive, when this tense is found in the hypotheti- 
cal clause; as, Stulium erat moncre, nisi jieret. Quint. — Sometimes, also, the 
preterites of the indicative are thus used in the condition; as, At fuerat melius, 
si U ptter iste tenebat. Ovid. See § 261, R. 1. 

(2.) 'I ought' or 'I should,' is expressed by the indicative of debeo, and pos- 
sum is in like manner often used for possem; as, Possum persequi multa oblecta- 
menta rrrum rusticdrum, sed, etc., I might speak of the many pleasures of hus- 
bandry, but, etc.; and it is usual in like manner to say, difficile est, hngum est, 
infinitum est, e. g. narrare, etc., for, ' it would be difficult,' ' it would iead too 
far,' ' there would be no end,' etc. 

(3.) The indicative is used in like manner after many general and relative 
expressions, especially after the pronouns and relative adverbs which are 
eitner doubled or have the suffix cumque; as, quisquis, quotguot, quicumque, 
utut, utcumque, etc., see §§ 139, 5,(3.) and 191,1. R.l, (6.); as, Quidquid id est, 
timeo Ddnaos et dona ferentes. Virg. Quern sors cumque dabit, lucro appone. Hor. 
8ed qvdquo mddo sese Mud hdbet, But however that may be. Cic. — In like man- 
ner sentences connected by sive — slve commonly have the verb in the indica- 
tive, unless there is a special reason for using the subjunctive; as, Sive verum 
est, sive falsum, mihi quidem ita renunciatum est. Later writers however use 
the subjunctive both with general relatives, etc., and with sive — sive. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

§ 260. The subjunctive mood is used to express an action 
or state simply as conceived by the mind. 

Note. The subjunctive character of a proposition depends, not upon its sub- 
stance, but upon its form. ' I believe,' ' I suppose,' are only conceptions, but 
my believing and supposing are stated as facts, and, of course, are expressed 
by means of the indicative. When, on the other hand, I say, ' I should be- 
23 



266 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. § 260. 

lieve,' ' I should suppose,' the acts of believing and supposing are represented 
not as facts, but as mere conceptions. Hence the verb that expresses the pur- 
pose or intention for which another act is performed, is put in the subjunctive, 
since it expresses only a conception ; as, Edo ut vivam, I eat that I may live. 
This mood takes its name from its being commonly used in subjoined or de- 
pendent clauses attached to the main clause of a sentence by a subordinate 
connective. In some cases, however, it is found in independent clauses, or in 
such, at least, as have no obvious dependence. 

I. The subjunctive, in some of its connections, is to be translated 
by the indicative, particularly in indirect questions, in clauses expres- 
sing a result, and after adverbs of time ; as, 

Rdgas me quid tristis sim, — why I am sad. Tac. Stelldrum tanta est multi- 
tude), ut numerdri non possint, — that they cannot be counted. Quum Ccesar esset 
in Gallia, When Caesar was in Gaul. Cass. 

II. The subjunctive is used to express what is contingent or hy- 
pothetical, including possibility, power, liberty, will, duty, and desire. 

Remakk 1. The tenses of the subjunctive, thus used, have the significations which 
have been given in the paradigms, and are, in general, not limited, in regard to time, 
like the corresponding tenses of the indicative. Thus, 

(1.) The present may refer either to present or future time ; as, Mediocribus 
et quls ignoscas vitiis teneor, I am subject to moderate faults, and such as you 
may excuse. Hor. Oral a Cazsare ut det sibi veniam, He begs of Csesar that he 
would give him leave. Cass. 

(2.) The imperfect may relate either to past, present, or future time; as, 
Si fata fmssent ut caderem, If it had been my fate that I should fall. Virg. 
Si possem, sdnior essem, I would be wiser, if I could. Ovid. Ceteros raperem 
et prosternerem, The rest I would seize and prostrate. Ter. 

(3.) The perfect subjunctive has always a reference to present time, and is 
equivalent to the indicative present or perfect definite ; as, Errarim fortasse, 
Perhaps I may have erred. Plin. — When it has a future signification it is not 
to be accounted a perfect, but the subjunctive of the future perfect. See Kem. 
4 and 7, (1.) But compare § 258, K. 1, (b.) and R. 3, (b.) 

(4.) The pluperfect subjunctive relates to past time, expressing a contin- 
gency, which is usually future with respect to some past time mentioned in 
connection with it; as, Id responderunt sefacturos esse, quum ille vento Aquilone 
venisset Lemnum.... when he should have come.... Nep. t 

Rem. 2. The imperfects vellem, nollem, and mallem, in the first person, ex- 
press a wish, the non-reality and impossibility of which are known; as, vellem, 
I should have wished. — In the second person, where it implies an indefinite 
person, and also in the third when the subject is an indefinite person, the im- 
perfect subjunctive is used in the sense of the pluperfect, and the condition is 
to be supplied by the mind. This is the case especially with the verbs, dico, 
pido, arbitror, credo ; also with video, cerno, and disc er no ; as, M&sfique (crede- 
res victos) redeunt in castra, — one might have thought that they were defeated. 
Liv. Pecuniae an fdmai minus parceret, hand futile discerneres. Sail. Qui 
videret eauum Trojdnum introduction, urbem captain dlceret. Cic. Quis umquam 
crederet? Id. Qids putaret? Id. — The imperfect subjunctive is frequently 
used, also, for the pluperfect in interrogative expressions ; as, Socrates quum 
rogaretur cujdtem se esse dicer et, Mundanum, inquit. Id. Quod si quis deus dice- 
ret, numquam putarem me in Acddemid tamquam phildsophum disputdturum, If 
any god had said....I never should have supposed. Cic. 

Rem. 3. The subjunctive in all its tenses may denote a supposition or 
concession; as, Vendat cedes vir bdnus, Suppose an honest man is selling a 
house. Cic. Dixerit Epicurus, Grant that Epicurus could have said. Id. 
Verum aneeps pugnce fuerat fortuna. — Fuisset, Grant that it might have been. 
Virg. Mains cms Cn. Carho fuit. Fuerit aliis, He may have been to others. 
Cic. — This concessive subjunctive is equivalent to esto ut. 



i 



§ 260. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 267 

Rem. 4. The present and perfect subjunctive are used in independent pro- 

f>o?itions to soften an assertion. When so used, they do not differ essentially 
rom the present and future indicative; as, Forsilan quseratis, You may per- 
haps ask. Yelim sic existimes, I would wish you to think so. Nemo islud tlbi 
eoncedat, or concesserit, No one will grant you that. Hoc sine ulld dubUdtione 
confirmaverim, eldquentiam rem esse omnium dijficillimam, This I will unhesi- 
tatingly affirm. Cic. Nil ego contulerim jucundo sdnus dmico. Hor. The form 
which is called the perfect subjunctive, when thus used for the future, seems 
to be rather the subjunctive of the future perfect: see Rem. 7,(1.) Vdlo and 
its compounds are often soused in the present; as, Velim obvias wild litems 
crebro mittas, I wish that you would frequently send, etc. Cic. The perfect 
subjunctive is also rarely used in the sense of a softened perfect indicative ; as, 
Forsitan tSmere fee erim,* I may have acted inconsiderately. 

Rem. 5. The subjunctive is used in all its tenses, in independent sentences, 
to express a doubtful question implying a negative answer; as, Quo earn? 
Whither shall I go? Quolrem? Whither should I go? Quoiverimt Whither 
was I to have gone ? Quoivissem? Whither should I have gone? The answer 
implied in all these cases is, ' nowhere.' So, Quis dubitet quin in virtute divitice 
sint f Who can doubt that riches consist in virtue? Cic. Quisquam niimen Juno- 
nis adoret pr&terea ? Virg. Quidni, inquit, memlnerim ? Cic. Quis vellet tanti 
nuntius esse mdlif Ovid. 

Rem. 6. The present subjunctive is often used to express a wish, 
an exhortation, asseveration, request, command, or permission ; as, 

Moriar, si, etc. May I die. if, etc. Cic. Peream, si non, etc. May I perish, if, 
etc. Ovid. So, A T e sim salvus. Cic. In media arma ruamus, Let us rush.... 
Virg. Ne me attingas, sceleste ! Do not touch me, villain ! Ter. Faciat quod 
lubtt, Let him do what he pleases. Id. The perfect is often so used ; as. Ipse 
vlderit, Let him see to it himself. Cic. Quam id recte fdciam, viderint sdpientes. 
Id. Memlnerimus, etiam adversus infimos justiliam esse servandam. Id. Nihil 
incommddo vdleludinis tuce ficeris. Id. Emas, non quod opus est, sed quod necesse 
est. Sen. Donis impii ne pldcdre audeant deos ; Pldtonem audiant. Cic. Ndtu- 
ram expellas furcd, tdmen usque recurret. Hor. 

(a.) The examples show that the present subjunctive, in the first person 
singular, is used in asseverations ; in the first person plural, in requests and ex- 
hortations; in the second and third persons of the present and sometimes of 
the perfect, in commands and permissions, thus supplying the place of the im- 
perative, especially when the person is indefinite. 

(6.) With these subjunctives, as with the imperative, the negative is usually 
not non but ne; as, ne dicas ; ne dicat ; ne dixeris. So, also, ne fuerit, for licet 
ne fuerit. 

(c.) The subjunctive for the imperative occurs most frequently in the third 
person. In the second person it is used principally with ne; ns'ne dicas. In 
the latter case the perfect very frequently takes the place of the present; as, 
ne dixiris. The subjunctive is also used in the second person, instead of the 
imperative, when the person is indefinite. 

(d.) In precepts relating to past time, the imperfect and pluperfect, also, are 
used for the imperative ; as, Forsilan non nemo vir fortis dixerit, restitisses, 
mortem pugnans oppetisses, — you should have resisted. Cic. 

Rem. 7. In the regular paradigms of the verb, no future subjunctive was 
exhibited either in the active or passive voice. 

(1.) When the expression of futurity is contained in another part of the sen- 
tence, the future of the subjunctive is supplied by the other tenses of that 
mood, viz. the future subjunctive by the present and imperfect, and the future 
perfect by the perfect and pluperfect. Which of these four tenses is to be used 
depends 6n the leading verb and on the completeness or incompleteness of the 
action to be expressed. The perfect subjunctive appears to be also the sub- 
junctive of the future perfect, and might not improperly be so called; as, 



268 SYNTAX. PROTASIS AND APODOSIS. § 261. 

Tanlum mdneo, hoc tempus si amiseris, te esse nullum umquam mdgis idoneum re- 
perturum, I only warn you, that, if you should lose this opportunity, you will 
never find one more convenient. Cic. 

(2.) If no other future is contained in the sentence, the place of the future 
subjunctive active is supplied by the participle in rus, with sim and essem; as, 
Non dubitat quin brevi Trvja sit peritura, He does not doubt that Troy will 
soon be destroyed. Cic. In hypothetical sentences the form with fuerim takes 
the place of a pluperfect subjunctive; as, Quis enim dubitat, quin, si Sdguntlnis 
impigre tulissemus dpem, totum in Eispdniam aversuri bellum fuerimus. Liv. 
The form in fuissem occurs also, but more rarely ; as, Appdruit, quantam ex- 
citatura mdlem vera fuisset clddes, quum, etc. See Periphrastic Conjugation, 
§ 162, 14. 

(3.) The future subjunctive passive is supplied, not by the participle in dus, 
but by futurum sit or esset, with ut and the present or imperfect of tbe sub- 
junctive ; as, Non dub'ito quin futurum sit, ut laudetur, I do not doubt that he 
will be praised. 

PROTASIS AND APODOSIS. 

§ ££61. In a sentence containing a condition and a conclu- 
sion, the former is called the protasis, the latter the apodosis. 

1. In the protasis of conditional clauses with si and its compounds, 
the imperfect aud pluperfect subjunctive imply the non-existence of 
the action or state supposed, the imperfect, as in English, implying 
present time. In the apodosis the same tenses of the subjunctive de- 
note what the result would be, or would have been, had the suppo- 
sition in the protasis been a valid one ; as, 

Nisi te satis incitdtum esse confiderem, scriberem plura, Did I not believe 
that you have been sufficiently incited, I would write more (Cic); which im- 
plies that he does believe, and therefore will not write. Si Neptunus, quod Theseo 
promlserat, non fecisset, Theseus filio Hippdlyto non esset orbatus. Id. 

2. The present and perfect subjunctive in the protasis, imply the 
real or possible existence of the action or state supposed ; as, 

Si velit, if he wishes, or, should wish, implying that he either does wish, or, 
at least, may wish. In the apodosis the present or perfect either of the sub- 
junctive or of the indicative may be used. 

Remark 1. The tenses of the indicative may also be used in the protasis 
of a conditional sentence with si, etc. ; as, Si vales, bene est. Cic. Si quis antea 
mlrabatur quid esset, ex hoc tempdre mlretur pdtius.... Id. — The conjunction si 
in the protasis is often omitted; as, Libet agros end. Prwium quairo quos agros? 
If you will buy lands, I will first ask, etc. But the protasis may be rendered 
without if, and either with or without an interrogation, as, You will buy lands, 
or, Will you buy lands ? The future perfect often occurs in the protasis of 
such sentences ; as, Casus medicusve levdrit wgrum ex prazcxplti, mater dillra ne- 
cdbit, (Hor.) Should chance or the physician have saved him, the silly mother 
will destroy him. Si is in like manner omitted with the imperfect and pluper- 
fect subjunctive, in supposing a case which is known not to be a real one; as, 
Absque te esset, hddie numquam ad solan occdsum vlverem. Plaut. 
^L Rem. 2. The present and perfect subjunctive differ but slightly from the in- 
dicative, the latter giving to a sentence the form of reality, while the subjunc- 
tive represents it as a conception, which, however, may at the same time be a 
reality. The second person singular of the present and perfect subjunctive 
often occurs in addressing an indefinite person, where, if the person were defi- 
nite, the indicative would be used; as, Memdria minuitur, ?iisi earn exerceas. 
Cic. When the imperfect or pluperfect is required to denote a past action, 



§ 262. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 269 

the indicative must be used, if its existence is uncertain, as those tenses in the 
subjunctive would imply its non-existence. In the or ado obllqua, when the 
leading verb is a present or a future, the same difference is observed between 
the tenses of the subjunctive as in hypothetical sentences; but when the lead- 
ing verb is a preterite the difference between possibility and impossibility is 
not expressed. 

Eem. 3. The present and perfect subjunctive are sometimes used, both in 
the protasis and apodosis of a conditional sentence, in the sense of the imper- 
fect and pluperfect ; as, Tu, si hie sis, dliter senlias, If you were here, you 
would think otherwise. Ter. Quos, ni mea cura resistat, jam flammve, tulerint. 
Virg. 

Eem. 4. The protasis of a conditional sentence is frequently not expressed, 
but implied ; as, Magno mercentur Atridxz, i. e. si possint. Virg. ; or is contained 
in a participial clause ; as, Agis, etsi a multltudlne victus, gloria tamen ornnes 
vlcit. Just. So, also, when the participle is in the ablative absolute ; as, Dond- 
rem tripddas — drvite me scilicet artium, quas aut Parrhdsius protulit, aut Scdpas. 
Hor. C. Mucius Porsenam interficere, propositi sibi morte, cdndtus est. Cic. 
It is only in later writers that the concessive conjunctions etsi, quamquam, and 
quamvis are expressed with the participle, but tdmen is often found in the 
apodosis, even in the classic period, when a participial clause precedes as a 
protasis. 

Eem. 5. In hypothetical sentences relating to past time, the actions seem 
often to be transferred in a measure to the present by using the imperfect, 
either in the protasis or the apodosis, instead of the pluperfect; as, Quod certe 
non fecisset, si suum numerum (nautdrum) naves haberent. Cic - Cimbri si stdtim 
infesto agmine urbem petissent, grande discrimen esset. Flor. Sometimes the 
imperfect, although the actions are completed, appears both in the protasis and 
the apodosis. 

Eem. 6. Nisi, nisi vero, and nisi forte are joined with the indicative, when 
they introduce a correction. Nisi then signifies 'except'; as, Nescio ; nisi hoc 
video. Cic. Nisi vero, and nisi forte, ' unless perhaps,' introduce an exception, 
and imply its improbability; as, Nemo fere saltat sobrius, nisi forte insdnit. Cic. 
Nisi forte in the sense of ' unless you suppose,' is commonly used ironically to 
introduce a case which is in reality inadmissible. 

SUBJUNCTIVE AFTEE PAETICLES. 
A. Substantive Clauses. 

§ 262. A clause denoting the purpose, object, or result of 
a preceding proposition, takes the subjunctive after ut, ne, quo, 
qnin, and quominus ; as, 

Ea non, ut te institu£rem, scripsi, I did not write that in order to instruct 
you. Cic. Irritant ad pugnandum, quo fiant acriores, They stimulate them to 
light, that they may become fiercer. Varr. 

Remark 1. Ut or uti, signifying ' that,' 'in order that,' or simply 
' to ' with the infinitive, relates either to a purpose or to a result. In 
the latter case it often refers to sic, ita, ddeo, tain, talis, tantus, is, 
ejusmddi, etc., in the preceding clause ; as, 

Id mihi sic erit grdtura, ut grdtius ease nihil possit, That will be so agreeable 
to me, that nothing can be more so. Cic. Non sum ita hebes, ut istuc dicam. Id. 
tain erdmus dmentes, ut explordia nobis esset victoria. Id. Tantum indulsit 
dOlori, ut eumpietas vinceret. Nep. Ita and tarn are sometimes omitted ; as, 
Epdiiunondas fuit etiam disertus, ut nemo Thebdnus ei par esset eloquentid, instead 
of tnm disertus. Id. Esse dportet ut vivas, non vivere ut edas. Auct. ad Her. 
Sol ejftcit ut omnia floreant. Cic. 
23* 



270 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. § 262. 

Rem. 2. Ut, signifying < even if ' or ' although,' expresses a suppo- 
sition merely as a conception, and accordingly takes the subjunctive ; 

as, 

Ut desint vires, tdmen est laudanda voluntas, Though strength be wanting, yet 
the will is to be praised. Ovid. Ut, in this sense, takes the negative non ; as, 
Exercitus si pads nomen audierit, ut non referat pedem (even if it does not with- 
draw) insistet certe. Gic. 

Rem. 3. Ut, with the subjunctive denoting a result, is used with 
impersonal verbs signifying it happens, it remains, it follows, etc. ; as, 

Qui fit, ut nemo contentus vivat ? How does it happen that no one lives con- 
tented? Hor. Huic contigit, ut patriam ex servitute in I'tbertdtem vindicaret. 
Nep. Sequitur igitur, ut etiam vitia sint parca. Cic. Keliquum est, ut egdmet 
mihi consulam. Nep. Eestat igitur, ut mdtus astrorum sit vdlunturius. Cic. 
Extremum Mud est, ut te orem et obsecrem. Id. 

Note 1. To this principle may be referred the following verbs and phrases 
signifying ' it happens,' viz. Jit, fieri non potest, accidit, incidit, contingit, evenit, 
usu venit, occurrit and est (it is the case, or it happens, and hence esto, be it 
that):— and the following, signifying ' it remains,' or ' it follows,' viz. futurum, 
extremum, prope, proxlmum, and reliquum — est, relinquitur, sequitur, reslat, and 
superest : and sometimes accedit. 

Note 2. Contingit with the dative of the person is often joined with the 
infinitive, instead of the subjunctive with ut ; as, Non cuivis homini contingit 
adlre Corinthum. Hor. And with esse also and other verbs of similar meaning, 
the predicate (as in the case of licet) is often found in the dative. — SequUur and 
efficitur, ' it follows,' have sometimes the accusative with the infinitive and 
sometimes the subjunctive; and nascltur, in the same sense, the subjunctive 
only. 

Note 3. Mos or moris est, consuetudo or consuetudinis est, and ndtura or con- 
suetudo fert, are often followed by ut instead of the infinitive. — Ut also occurs 
occasionally after many such phrases as ndvum est, rarum, naturdle, necesse, 
usitatum, mirum, singuldre — est, etc., and after cequum, rectum, verum, utile, veri- 
simile, and integrum — est. 

For other uses of ut, with the subjunctive, see § 273. 

Rem. 4. Ut is often omitted before the subjunctive, after verbs de- 
noting willingness and permission ; also after verbs of asking, advis- 
ing, reminding, etc., and the imperatives die and fac ; as, 

Quid vis fdciaml What do you wish (that) I should do? Ter. Insani feriant 
sine litora fluctus. Virg. Tentes dissvmuldre rogat. Ovid. Id sinus oro. Id. Se 
suddere, dixit, Pharnabdzo id negdtii ddret. Nep. Accedat dportet actio vdria. 
Cic. Fac edgites. Sail. So, Vide ex ndvi efferantur, qua, etc, Plaut. 

Verbs of willingness, etc., are vdlo, malo, permitto, concedo, patior, sino, licet, veto, 
etc.; those of asking, etc., are rogo, oro, quceso, moneo, admdneo, jiibeo, mando, peto, 
prScor, censeo, su&deo, oportet, necesse est, postulo, hortor, euro, decerno, opto, impe'ro. 

Rem. 5. Ne, ' that not,' ' in order that not,' or ' lest,' expresses a 
purpose negatively ; as, 

Cura ne quid ei desit, Take care that nothing be wanting to him. Cic. Nemo 
prudens piinit, id ait Plato, quia pec cat um est, sed ne pecci'tur. Id. Ut ne is fre- 
quently used for ne, especially in solemn discourse, and hence in laws ; as, 
Opera detur, ut judicia ne flant. Id. Quo ne is used in the same manner in one 
passage of Horace. Missus ad hoc — quo ne per vacuum Romano incurreret hos- 
tis. — On the other hand ut non is used when a simple result or consequence is 
to be expressed, in which case ita, sic, tarn are either expressed or understood ; 
as, Turn forte ozgrdtdbam, ut ad nuptias tuas vdnlre non posse?n. In a few cases, 
however, ut non is used for ne. — Ut non is further used, when the negation re- 



§ 262. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 271 

fers to a particular word or to a part only of the sentence, as in similar cases 
st non must be used, and not nisi; as, Confer te ad Manlium, ut a me non 
ejectus ad dlienos, sed invUdtus ad tuos isse videfiris. Cic. 

Rem. 6. Ne is often omitted after cave ; as, ^ 

Cave putes, Take care not to suppose. Cic. Compare § 267, R. 3. 

Rem. 7. After metuo, timeo, vereor, and other expressions denoting 
fear or caution, ne must be rendered by that or lest, and ut by that 
not. 

Note 3. To the verbs metuo, timeo, and vereor are to be added the substan- 
tives expressing fear, apprehension or danger, and the verbs terreo, conterreo, 
deterreo, cdveo, to be on one's guard, video and observo in requests (as, vide, 
videte and videndum est), in the sense of ' to consider ' ; as, 

Mih metuebat, ne a servis indicaretur, Milo feared that he should be betrayed 
by his servants. Cic. Vereor, ne, dum minuere velim Idbdrem, augeam. Id. 
Pdvor erat, ne castra hostis aggrederetur. Liv. Ilia duo vereor, ut tibi possim 
concedere, I fear that I cannot grant.... Cic. Cdvendum est ne assentdtdribus pfit- 
ef aciamus aures, neu dduldri nos sinamus. Cic. Vide ne hoc tibi obsit. Terruit 
gentes, grave ne redlret seculum Pyrrhai. Multitudinem deterrent, ne frumentum 
conferant. Caes. Memiserum! ne prbna cadas. Ovid. 

Note 4. Neve or neu is used as a continuative after ut and ne. It is properly 
equivalent to aut ne, but is also used for et ne after a preceding ut ; as, on the 
other hand, et ne is used after a negation instead of aut ne ; as, Legem tulit, ne 
quis ante actdrum rerum accusdretur, neve multaretur. Nep. Ccesar miliies non 
tongiore drdtione cohortdtus, quam uti sum pristinve virtutis memotiam retinerent, 
neu perturbarentur animo — pralii commiltendi signum dedit. Caes. Neque, also, 
is sometimes used for et ne after ut and ne; as, Ut ea pra>termittam, neque eos 
ajypellem. Cic. Cur non sancitis ne viclnus patricio sit plebeius, nee eddem itinere 
eat. Liv. — Ne non is sometimes used for ut after verbs of fearing; as, Timeo ne 
non impetrem, I fear I shall not obtain it. 

Rem. 8. The proposition on which the subjunctive with ut and ne depends, 
is sometimes omitted; as, Utitadicam. Cic. Ne singulos nominem. Liv. 

Note 5. Nedum, like ne, takes the subjunctive ; as, Optimis temporibus cldris- 
simi viri vim tribunuiam sustinere non potuerunt: nedum his temporibus sine 
juduidrum remediis salri esse possJmus, — still less, etc. Cic. Ne is sometimes 
used in the sense of nedum; as, Novam earn potestdtem (scil. tribundrum plebis) 
frijii're patribus nogtris, ne nunc dulcedine semel capti ferant desiderium. Liv. — 
Nedum without a verb has the meaning of an adverb, and commonly follows a 
negative; as, JEgre inermis tanta multitude, nedum armUa, sustineri potest. Liv. 
Ne, also, is used in the same manner in Cic. Fam. 9, 26. 

Rem. 9. Quo, ' that,' ' in order that/ or, ' that by this means,' 
especially with a comparative ; non quo, or non quod, ' not that,' ' not 
as if'; non quin, 'not as if not' ; which are followed in the apodosis 
by sed quod, sed quia, or sed alone ; and quo/ninus, ' that not,' after 
clauses denoting hinderance, take the subjunctive ; as, 

Adjuta me, quo id flat facilius, Aid me, that that may be done more easily. 
Ter. Xon quo repSbUcd sit mihi quiequam cdrius, sed desperdtis etiam Hippocrates 
vetat ddhibtre mrdicinam. Cic. Non quod sola ornent, sed quod excellant. Id. 
Neque recusdvit, quo minus legis pcenam sublret. Nep. Ego me ducem in civUi 
bdlo nSyavi esse, non quin rectum esset, sed quia, etc. Cic. And instead of non 
quin we may say non quo non, non quod non, or non quia non; and for non quod, 
noji eo quod, or non ideo quod. 

Rem. 10. Quin, after negative propositions and questions with quis 
and quid implying a negative, takes the subjunctive. Quin is used, 



272 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. § 262. 

1, For a relative with non, after nemo, nullus, nihil. ..est, reperitur, invenitWj 
etc. ; vix est, cegre reperitur, etc. ; as, Messdnam nemo venit, quin vlderit, i. e. 
qui non vlderit, No one came to Messana who did- not see. Cic. Nego ullam pic- 
turam fuisse.... quin conqulsierit, i.e. quam non, etc. Id. Nihil est, quin male 
narrando possit deprdvari. Ter. Quis est, quin cernat, quanta vis sit in sensibus t 
Cic. 

Note 6. When quin is used for the relative it is commonly equivalent to the 
nominative qui, quas, quod, but it is sometimes used in prose instead of the 
accusative, and sometimes after dies for quo, as the ablative of time ; as, Dies 
fere nullus est, quin hie Satrius domum meam ventitet, i. e. quo — non ventitet. 
Cic. — Qui non is often used for quin ; as, Quis enim erat, qui non sclret. Id. ; 
and when quin stands for qui non or quod non, is and id are sometimes added 
for the sake of emphasis; as. Cleanthes negat ullnm cibum esse tarn gravem, quin 
is die et node concoqudtur. Cic. Nihil est quod sensum hdbeat, quin id intereat. 
Id. — So, also, the place of quin is supplied by ut non ; as, Augustus numquam 
filios suos ])dpulo commenduvit ut non adjiceret (without adding) si merebuntur. 
Suet. And if no negation precedes, or' if non belongs to a particular word, and 
not to the vex-b, qui non and ut non must of course be used and not quin. 

2. For ut non, ' that not,' or ' without ' with a participle, especially after 
fdcere non possum, fieri non potest, nulla causa est, quid causaz est ? nihil causal 
est ; as, Fdcere non possum quin ad te mittam, i. e. ut non, etc. Cic. Numquam 
lam male est Siculis, quin dliquid fdcete et commdde dlcant. Cic. Numquam ac- 
cede-, quin abs te abeam doctior, — without going from you wiser. Ter. 

Note 7. Quin takes the subjunctive also after the negative expressions non 
dubito, non est dubium, non ambigo, I doubt not ; non dbest ; nihil, paulum, non 
procul, haud multum dbest ; non, vix, azgre alstineo ; tenere me, or temperdre mihi 
non possum ; non impedio, non recuso, nihil pr&termitto, and the like. In these 
cases, however, the negation in quin is superfluous, and it is generally trans- 
lated into English by 'that,' 'but that,' or 'to' with an infinitive; as, Non 
dubito quin domi sit, that he is at home. Non multum dbest, quin miserrimus sim, 
Not much is wanting to make me most wretched. Cic. Hence, as quin is not 
in such cases regarded as a negative, non is superadded when a negative sense 
is required; as, In quibus non dubito quin vffensionem negligentiai vitdre atque 
effugere non possum. Cic. Dubitandum non est quin numquam possit utilitas cum 
honestdte contendere. Id. 

Note 8. In Nepos, non dubito, in the sense of ' I do not doubt,' is always fol- 
lowed by the infinitive with the accusative, and the same construction often 
occurs in later writers but not in Cicero: in the sense of to scruple or hesitate, 
when the verb following has the same subject, dubito and non dubito are gener- 
ally followed by the infinitive ; as, Cicero non dtibitabat conjurdtos supplicio af- 
f icere. — It may be added that ' I doubt whether ' is expressed in Latin by 
dubito sitne, dubito utrum — an, dubito sitne — an, or dubito num, numquid, for dubito 
an, and dubium est an are used, like nescio an with an affirmative meaning. 

Note 9. Quin signifies also 'why not?' being compounded of the old abla- 
tive qui and ne, i. e. non, and in this sense is joined with the indicative in ques- 
tions implying^ an exhortation ; as, Quin conscendimus equos f Why not mount 
our horses'? In this sense it is also joined with the imperative ; as, Quin die 
sldtim, Well, tell me: or with the first person of the subjunctive. Hence with- 
out being joined to any verb it signifies ' even' or 'rather.' 

Rem. 11. The principal verbs of hinderance, after which quominus occurs, 
and after which ne, and, if a negative precedes, quin also may be used, are de- 
terreo, impedio, intercedo, obsisto, obsto, officio, prdhibeo, recuso, and repugno. It 
occurs also after stat or Jit per me, I am the cause, non pugno, nihil mdror, non 
contineo me, etc. 

Note. Impedio, deterreo, and recuso are sometimes, and prdhibeo frequently 
followed by the infinitive. Instead of quominus, quo secius is sometimes used. 






§ 263. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 273 

§ 203* The particles specified in this section always introduce a sentence con- 
taining only a conception of the mind, and are hence joined with the subjunctive. 

1. The subjunctive is used after particles of wishing, as utinam, uti, 
01 and 01 si; as, 

Utinam minus vlUe cupidi fuissemus ! that we had been less attached to life ! 
Cic. si solitce quicquam virtutis adesset! Virg. 

Remark. The present and pei-fect tenses, after these particles, are used in 
reference to those wishes which are conceived as possible ; the imperfect and 
pluperfect are employed in expressing those wishes which are conceived as 
wanting in reality. Of. § 261, 1 and 2. — ' Would that not' is expressed in Latin 
both by utinam ne and utinam non. Uiinam is sometimes omitted ; as, Tecum 
ludere slcut ipsa possem! Catull. 

B. Adverbial Clauses. 

2. (1.) Quamvis, however ; licet, although; tamquam, tamquam si, 
quasi, ac si, ut si, velut, velut si, veluti, slcuti, and ceu, as if; modo, 
dum, and dummddo, provided, — take the subjunctive ; as, 

Quamvis ilk felix sit, idmen, etc. However happy he may be, still, etc. Cic. 
Veritas licet nullum defensdrem obtlneat, Though truth should obtain no de- 
fender. Id. Tamquam clausa sit Asia, sic nihil perfertur ad nos. Id. Sed quid 
ego his testibus utor, quasi res dubia aut obscura sit? Id. Me omnibus rebus, juxta 
ac si mens f rater esset, sustentdvit, He supported me in every thing, just as 
though he were my brother. Id. Similiter fdcere eos, — ut si nautw certarent, 
titer, etc. Id. Absentis Aridvisti crudelitdtem, velut si coram adesset, hwrerent. 
Caes. Inque sinus cdros, veluti cognosced, ibat. Ovid. Sicuti jurgio laeessi- 
tus foret, in sendtum venit. Sail. Hie vero ingentem pugnam, ceu cetera nusquam 
bella forent. Virg. Oderint dum mutuant. Att. in Cic. Manent ingenia senibus, 
mudo permaneat studium et industria. Cic. Omnia honesta negligunt dummodo 
pdtentiam consequantur, They disregard every honorable principle, provided 
they can obtain power. Id. 

Note. Mddo, dum, and dummddo, when joined with a negation, become 
mddo ne, dum ne, and dummddo ne. 

(2.) Quamvis (although) is in Cicero joined with a principal tense of the sub- 
junctive; as, Quamvis non fufcris sudsur, apprdbdtor eerie fuisli. Cic. In later 
writers it is often used with the indicative; as, Felicem Nidben, quamvis tot 
funera vidit. Ovid. So also once in Cicero, Quamvis patrem suum numquam 
viderat. Rab. Post. 2. 

(3.) Quamvis, as a conjunction, in the sense of ' however much,' is joined 
with the subjunctive. So also when its component parts are separated; as, 
C. Gracchus dixit, sibi in somnis Ti. frdtrem visum esse dicere, quam vellet cunc- 
taretur, idmen, etc. — Quamvis ' however much,' as an adverb, governs no par- 
ticular mood. 

(4.) Etsi, tdmetsi, even if, although, and quamquam, although, commonly in- 
troduce an indicative clause: — etiamsi is more frequently followed by the sub- 
junctive. In later prose writers, and sometimes in Cicero and Sallust as well 
as in the poets, quamquam is joined with the subjunctive; as, Quamquam pros- 
tente Lucullo loquar. Cic. Vi regire patriam quamquam possis. Sail. Jug. 3. 
F'tlius quamquam Theudos marinas Darddnas turrts quateret. Hor. 

Remark. The imperfect subjunctive with ac si, etc., is used after the pre- 



sent, to denote that in reality the thing is not so, but in that case a hypotheti- 
be supplied; as, Kgndt'd rem ut tuedre&que a tepeio, ac si 



cal subjunctive must 



mea negotia essent, i. e. ac peterem, si mea negotia essent, as I would pray if, 
etc. Cic. 



274 SYNTAX.— SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. § 263. 

3. After antequam and priusquam, the imperfect and pluperfect 
tenses are usually in the subjunctive; the present and perfect may be 
either in the indicative or subjunctive. The present indicative is 
commonly used when the action is to be represented as certain, near 
at hand, or already begun ; the subjunctive is used when the thing is 
still doubtful, and also in general propositions ; as, 

Ea causa ante mortua est, qnam tu natus esses, That cause was dead before 
you were born. Cic. Avertit equos, priusquam pdbula gustassent Trojce, Xan- 
thumque bibissent. Virg. Prmsquam incipias, consulto opus est, Before you be- 
gin there is need of counsel. Sail. 

4. (1.) Dum, donee, and quoad, signifying until, are followed by 
the subjunctive, if they refer to the attainment of an object ; as, 

Dum hie verriret, Idcum relinquere noluit, He was unwilling to leave the place 
until he (Milo) should come. Cic. Nihil puto tibi esse utilius quam opperiri quoad 
scire possis, quid tibi agendum sit. Id. Cornu tetendit, et duxit huge, donee curvd- 
ta colrent inter se capita. Virg. — In the sense of ' as long as,' these particles 
take the indicative, but Tacitus joins donee with the subjunctive even when a 
simple fact is to be expressed. 

(2.) Dum, while, is commonly used with the indicative present, whatever 
may be the tense of the principal sentence. Cf. § 259, K. 1, (1.), (a.) 

5. Quum (cum), when it signifies a relation of time, takes 
the indicative ; when it denotes a connection of thought, the 
subjunctive; as, 

Qui non defendit injuriam, neque repulsat a suis, quum potest, injuste facit. 
Cic. Quum recte ndvigdri poterit, turn ndviges. Id. Credo turn, quum Sicilia 
florebat opibus et copiis, magna artificia fuisse in ea insula. Id. Quum tot sustin- 
eas et tanta negdtia, peccem, si mdrer tua tempdra, Since you are burdened 
with so many and so important affairs, I should do wrong, if I should occupy 
your time. Hor. Quum vita sine dmicismetus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet dmiciU 
las compdrdre. Cic. 

Remark 1. (a.) The rule for the use of quum may be thus expressed: 
Quum temporal takes the indicative, quum causal the subjunctive. Hence, 
when quum is merely a particle of time, with no reference to cause and effect, 
and not occurring in a historical narrative (see Rem. 2), it may be joined with 
any tense of the indicative. But when it is employed to express the relation 
of cause and effect, or has the meaning of ' though ' or ' although,' it is joined 
with the subjunctive (b.) Quum, relating to time, is commonly translated 
when, while, or after ; referring to a train of thought, it signifies as, since, though 
or although, because ; but may often be translated when. 

Rem. 2. In narration, quum, even when it relates to time, is joined 
with the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive, when a historical per- 
fect stands in the principal clause ; as, 

Gracchus, quum rem illani in religionem populo venisse sentiret, ad sendtum ret- 
ulit. Cic. Alexander, quum interemisset Clitum, vix manus a se abstinuit. Id. 

Note. Quum temporal, when it expresses an action frequently repeated, 
may be joined with the pluperfect indicative, and the apodosis^ then contains 
the imperfect; as, Quum autem vir esse coeperat, dabat se Vibovi. Cic. Quum 
rdsam vlderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur. Id. Cf. $ 264, 12. 

Rem. 3. Quum in the sense of ' while ' is joined with the perfect and imper- 
fect indicative, often with the addition of inter ea or interim, to express simulta- 
neous occurrences; as, Cdiulus cepit magnum suce virtutis fructum, quum oinnes 4 
prOpe una voce, in eo ipso vos spem Mbituros esse, dixistis. Cic. Caidebdtur virgis ' 



§ 264. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI. 275 

in medio fdro Messanm clvis Romdnus, judices, quum interea nulla vox dlia islius 
miseri audiebatur, nisi hxzc : clvis Romanus sum. Id. 

Rem. 4. Quum, for the most part preceded by an adverb, as, Jam, nondum, 
vix, agre, or joined with repente or subito is followed by the indicative, espe- 
cially by the present indicative, to express the beginning of an action. In the 
cases mentioned in this and the preceding remark, the historians also use quum 
with the historical infinitive. 

For the subjunctive after si and its compounds, see § 261. 

C. Adjective Clauses. 

SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI. 

§ 264:. Relatives require the subjunctive, when the clauses 
connected by them express merely a conception ; as, for exam- 
ple, a consequence, an innate quality, a cause, motive, or purpose. 

1. (a.) When the relative qui, in a clause denoting a result of the 
character or quality of something specified in the antecedent clause, 
follows a demonstrative, and is equivalent to ut with a personal or 
demonstrative pronoun, it takes the subjunctive. 

Note. The demonstratives after which qui takes the subjunctive, are tarn with an 
adjective, tantus, talis, SjusmGdi, hujusmSdi, and is, ille, iste, and hie in the sense of 
talis; as, 

Quis est tarn Lynceus, qui in tantis tenebris nihil offendat ? i. e. ut ille in tantis, 
etc., Who is so quick-sighted, that he would not stumble ; (or, as not to stum- 
ble,) in such darkness. Cic. Tulem te esse dportet, qui ab impiorum clvium sdcie- 
tdte sejungas; i.e. ut tu, etc. Id. At eafuit legdiio Octdvii, in qua periculi 
suspicio non subesset, i. e. ut in ed. Id. Nee tamen ego sum ille ferreus, qui frd- 
tris ( drissimi mozrdre non movear, i. e. ut ego non mdvear. Id. Non sumus ii, 
quibus nihil verum esse vldeatur, i. e. ut nobis nihil, etc. Id. Nulla gens tarn 
f era est, cujus mtntem non imbuerit dedrum opinio, i. e. ut ejus mentem, etc. Id. 

(&.) Sometimes the demonstrative word is only implied ; as, 

Res parva dictu, sed quse stiidiis in magnum certdmen excess erit, i. e. talis 
qua.. ..of such a kind that it issued in a violent contest. Cic. Nunc dicis dliquid, 
quod ad rem pertineat, i. e. tale ut id, etc. Id. So quis sum, for num talis sum; 
as, Quis sum, cujus aures hedi nefas sit V Sen. — In like manner, also, a demon- 
strative denoting a character or quality, is implied in the examples included in 
the following rule : — 

2. "When the relative is equivalent to quamquam is, etsi is, or dum- 
modo is, it takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Loco, consilii quamvis egregii, quod non ipse afferret, inimicus, Laco, an oppo- 
nent of any measure, however excellent, provided he did not himself propose 
it. Tac. Tu dquam a pumice postulas, qui ipsus sitiat. Plaut. Nihil mdlestum, 
quod non desIdGres, i. e. dummddo id. Cic. 

3. Quod, in restrictive clauses, takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Quod sciam, as far as I know; quod memlnerim, as far as I recollect; quod ego 
intelligam ; quod intelligi possit ; quod conjecturd prdvideri possit ; quod salvd fide 
possim ; quod commddo tuo fiat, etc. — Quidem is sometimes added to the rela- 
tive in such sentences. Quod sine mdlestid tud fiat, So far as it can be done 
without troubling you. Cic. In the phrases quantum p>ossum, quantum ego per- 
spicio, on the other hand, the indicative is used. 



276 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI. § 264. 

4. A relative clause, after the comparative followed by quam, takes 
the subjunctive ; as, 

Major sum, quam cui possit fortuna nocere, i. e. quam ut mihi, etc., I am too 
great for fortune to be able to injure me. Ovid. Audita voce prceconis mdjus 
gaudium fuit, quam quod universum homines caperent, Upon the herald's voice 
being heard, the joy was too great for the people to contain. Liv. 

Remark 1. The clause annexed by quam qui implies an inherent quality, or 
a consequence ; so that quam qui is equivalent to quam ut, which also some- 
times occurs. Sometimes the subjunctive follows quam even without a rela- 
tive pronoun; as, In his litems longior fui, quam aut vellem, aut quam meputdvi 
fore: — and so frequently with the verbs vette and posse. 

5. A relative clause expressing a purpose, aim, or motive, and 
equivalent to ut with a personal or demonstrative pronoun, takes the 
subjunctive; as, 

Lacedasmonii legdtos Athenas mlserunt, qui eum absentem accusarent : i. e. ut 
illi eum accusarent, The Lacedaemonians sent ambassadors to Athens to accuse 
him in his absence. Nep. Ccesar equitdtum omnem prmmiUit, qui videant, quas in 
partes iter fdciant. Caes. Sunt autem multi, qui eripiunt dliis, quod dliis largian- 
tur. Cic. Assidue repetant, quas perdant, Belides undas. Ovid. 

Rem. 2. So also with relative adverbs ; as, Lampsdcum ei ( Themistocli) rex 
dbndrat, unde vlnum siimeret, i. e. ex qua or ut inde, etc. Nep. Super tdberndc- 
ulum regis, unde ab omnibus conspici posset, imago solis crystalk) inclusa fidge- 
bat. Curt. 

6. A relative clause with the subjunctive after certain indefinite 
general expressions, specifies the circumstances which characterize 
the individual or class indefinitely referred to in the leading clause ; 

as, 

Fuerunt ea iempestdte, qui dlcerent, There were at that time some who said. 
Sail. Erant, quibus appetentlor fdmce, videretur, There were those to whom 
he appeared too desirous of fame. Tac. Sunt, qui censeant, una dnimum et 
coipus occidere. Cic. Erunt, qui existimdri velint. Id. Si quis erit, qui perpe- 
tuam ordtionem desTderet, altera actione audiet. Id. Venient legiones, quas neque 
me inultum neque te impunltum patiantur. Tac. So after est followed by quod, 
in the sense of ' there is reason why ' ; as, Est quod gaudeas, You have cause 
to rejoice. Plaut. Est quod vlsam ddmum. Id. Si est quod desit, ne beatus 
quidem est. Cic. 

Note 1. The expressions included in the rule are est, sunt, adest, prrzsto sunt, exsis- 
tunt, exoriuntur, invZniuntur, repSriuntur, (sell, homines); si quis est, tempus fuit, tern- 
pus veniet, etc. 

Rem. 3. The same construction occurs with relative particles used indefi- 
nitely; as, Est unde haic fiant. Si est culpam ut Antipho in se admiserit, If it 
chance that, etc. Ter. Est ubi id isto modo valeat. Cic. So est cur and est ut 
in the sense of est cur; as, 1 lie erat, ut odisset defensorem sdlutis meat, i. e. he 
had reason to hate. Cic. Non est igitur ut mirandum sit, There is no occasion 
for wondering. Id. 

Rem. 4. The above and similar expressions are followed by the subjunctive 
only when they are indefinite. Hence, after sunt quldam, sunt nonnulli, sunt 
multi, etc., when referring to definite persons, the relative takes the indicative; 
as, Sunt ordtiones qumdam, quas Menocrilo dabo. Cic. 

Rem. 5. The indicative is sometimes, though rarely, used after sunt qui, 
even when taken indefinitely, especially in the poets; as, Sunt, quos juvat. Hor. 
Sunt qui ita dicunt. Sail. 

7. A relative clause after a general negative, or an interrogative 
expression implying a negative, takes the subjunctive ; as, 



§ 264. SYNTAX. — SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI. 277 

Nemo est, qui haud intelllgat, There is no one who does not understand. Cic. 
Nulla res est, quae perferre possit continuum Idborem, There is nothing which 
can endure perpetual labor. Quint. Nulla pars est corporis, quae non sit minor. 
Id. Nihil est, quod tarn miseros f iiciat, quam impietas et scelus. Cic. In foro 
vix decimus quisque est, qui ipsus sese noscat. Plaut. Quis est, qui uiilia fiigiat? 
Who is there that shuns what is useful ? Cic. Qua latebra est, in quam non in- 
tret metus mortis t Sen. Quid dulcius quam habere, quicum omnia audeas sic 16- 
qui ut tecum? Cic. (See respecting thistise of the indefinite quicum rather than 
the definite quocum, § 136, R. 1.) An est quisquam, qui hoc ignoret? Is there 
any one Who is ignorant of this ? Id. Numquid est mdli, quod non dixeris ? Ter. 

Note 2. General negatives are nemo, nvllus, nihil, units non, alius non, non quisquam, 
vix itllus. nee uilus, etc., with est ; vix with an ordinal and quisque; nifgo esse quemquam, 
etc. Interrogative expressions implying a negative, are quis, quid; qui, quae., quod; 
quantum, liter, ecquis, numquis, an quisquam, an allquis, quotus quisque, quotus, etc., 
with est ? quot, quam multi, etc., with sunt? 

Note 3. The same construction is used after non est, nihil est, quid est, num- 
quid est, etc., followed by quod, cur, qudre, or quamobrem, and denoting ' there 
is no reason why,' ' what cause is there?' 'is there any reason?' as, Quod 
timeas, non est, There is no reason why you should fear. Ovid. Nihil est, 
quod adventum nostrum pertimescas. Cic. Quid est, quod de ejus civitdle dubites ? 
LI. Quceris a me, quid eyo Cdtilinam metuam. Nihil, et curavi ne quis metueret. 
Quid es<, cur virtus ipsa per se non efficiat bedtost Id. — So after non hdbeo, or 
nihil hdbeo ; as, Non hdbeo, quod te accusem. Cic. Nil hdbeo, quod agam, I have 
nothing to do. Hor. Nihil hdbeo, quod ad te scrlbam. Cic. So without a nega- 
tive, De quibus habeo ipse, quid sentiam. Id. Causa or, with quid and nihil, 
caiiste, is sometimes added; as, Non fuit causa, cur postuldres. Id. Quid erat 
causa?, cur metueret. Id. 

Note 4. (a.) The relative clause takes the subjunctive after the expressions 
included in this and the last rule, only when it expresses the character or 
quality of the subject of the antecedent'clause; and the relative, as in the pre- 
ceding cases of the relative with the subjunctive, is equivalent to a personal or 
demonstrative pronoun with ut ; as, Nemo est, qui nesciat, There is no one who 
is ignorant, i. e. no one is ignorant. Cic. So, Sunt, qui hoc carpant, There are 
some who blame this, i. e. some blame this. Veil. 

(6.) If the relative clause is to be construed as a part of the logical subject 
it does not require the subjunctive; as, Nihil stabile est, quod infidum est 
Nothing which is faithless is firm. Cic. 

8. (1.) A relative clause expressing the reason of what goes before, 
takes the subjunctive; as, 

Peccdvisse mihi videor, qui a te discesserim, I think I did wrong in leaving 
you. Cic. Inertiam aixusas dddlescentium, qui istam artem non ediscant, You 
blame the idleness of the young men, because they do not learn that art. Id. 
fortunate dddlescens, qui tuce virtutis Homerum prozednem inveneris ! — in hav- 
ing found. Id. Cdnlnius fuit mirif'ad viyilantid, qui suo tdto consuldtu somnum 
non viderit, — since, etc. Id. 

(2.) Sometimes, instead of qui alone, ut qui, quippe qui, or utpote 
qui, is used, generally with the subjunctive ; as, 

Conviria cum patre non inibat, quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi perrdro 
'. Cic Neqm Antunius pi'dcul dberat, utpote qui mayno exercitu seque- 
retur. Sail. But sometimes with the indicative in Sallust and Livy ; as, Quippe 
qui omnia vic€rat. Sail. 

9. After dirjnus-, indignus, aptus, and iduneus, a relative clause 
takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Vtdetur, qui dliquando imperet, dignus esse, He seems to be worthy at some 
tune to command. Cic. Rustici nostri quum fidem dlicujus bdnitdlemque laudant, 
dignura esse dicunt, quicum in tenebris mices. Id. Nulla videbdtur aptior per- 
U 



278 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS. § 265. 

sona, quae de estate loqueretur. Id. Pompeius Idoneus non est, qui impetret. Id. 
Et rem Idoneam, de qua quseratur, et homines dignos, quibuscwm disseratur, pu- 
tant. Id. 

Note 5. If the relative clause does not express that of which the person or 
thing denoted by the antecedent is worthy, its construction is not influenced 
by this rule. Thus, Quis servus libertate dignus fuit, cui nostra sdlus cdra non 
esset ? The subjunctive is here used according to No. 7 of this section. 

Note 6. The infinitive frequently follows these adjectives in poetry, though 
rarely in prose ; as, Et puer ipse fuit cantari dignus. Virg. : — and sometimes 
ut ; as, Eras dignus, ut haberes integram mdnum. Quint. 

10. A relative clause, after unus, solus, primus, etc., restricting 
the affirmation to a particular subject, takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Haze est una contentio, qua? ddhuc permanserit, This is the only dispute which 
has remained till this time. Cic. Voluptas est sola, qua nos vocet ad se, et alll- 
ceat suapte naturd, Pleasure is the only thing that, by its own nature, invites 
and allures us to itself. Id. 

11. When the relative refers to a dependent clause, it often takes 
the subjunctive. See § 266. 

12. The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used in narra- 
tion after relative pronouns and adverbs, when a repeated action is 
spoken of; as, 

Semper hdbiti sunt fortissimi, qui summam imperii potlrentur, Those were al- 
ways accounted the bravest, who obtained the supreme dominion. Nep. 
Quemcumque lictor jussu consulis prehendisset, tribunus mitti jubebat. Liv. 
Ut quisque maxime laboraret locus, aut ipse oeeurrebat, aut dliquos mittebat. So 
after si quis or qui ; as, Si qui rem mdlitiosius gessisset, dedecus existimabant, 
Cic. Qudtiens super tali negotio consultaret, editd domus parte utebatur. Tac. 
Nee quisquam Pyrrhum, qua tulisset impetum, sustinere vdluit. — It is sometimes 
found in like manner after quum, iibi, ut, and .si when used in the sense of 
quum, when repeated actions are spoken of; as, Id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines 
eorum emittcbat. Liv. Sin Numida> propius accessissent, ibi vero virtutem osien- 
dere. Sail. Sometimes even the present subjunctive is so used when em- 
ployed as an aorist to express things which have happened repeatedly, and 
still happen (see § 145, I. 2.); as, Ubi de magna virtute et gloria bonbrum memo- 
res, qim sibi quisque, etc. Sail. 

Note 7. This is called the indefinite subjunctive, or subjunctive of generality, inasmuch 
as the action is not referred to a distinct, individual case. The indicative, however, is 
used in such cases more frequently than the suhjunctive. 

SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 

§ ^£6«>. Dependent clauses, containing an indirect question, 
take the subjunctive. 

Note 1. A question is indirect when its substance is stated in a dependent 
clause without the interrogative form. Indirect questions generally depend 
upon those verbs and expressions which commonly take after them the accusa- 
tive with the infinitive. Cf. § 272. Thus :— 

Qualis sit animus, ipse animus nescit, The mind itself knows not what the 
mind is. Cic. Crcdibile non est, quantum scrlbam, It is incredible how much I 
write. Id. Quis ego sim, me rdgitas t Do you ask me who I am? Plaut. Ad te 
quid scribam nescio. Cic. Nee' quid scrlbam hdbeo, Nor have I anything to 
write. Id. Doce me, iibi sint dii, Inform me where the gods are. Id. Incertum 
est, quo te loco mors exspectet. Sen. Ep. Quam prldem sibi hereditas venisset, 
ddcet. Id. Nunc accipe, quare deslpiant omnes. Hor. Id utrum illi sentiant, an 



§ 266. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INSERTED CLAUSES. 279 

vero simiilent, tu intelliges. Cic. Qucero, num tu sendtui causam iuam permittas. 
Id. Vides, ut alta stet nlve candidum Soracte. Hor. Nescit, vitdne fruatur, an 
sit dpud manes. Ovid. 

Note 2. All interrogatives whether adjectives, pronouns, or par- 
ticles, may serve as connectives of clauses containing indirect ques- 
tions; as, 

Quantus, quSlis, qudt, qudtus, quStuplex, titer; quis, qui, cujas ; ubi, qu5, unde, qua, 
quorsum, quamdiu, quamdudum, quamprldem, qudties, cur, quart, quamobrem, quemad- 
tnHdum, quZmSdo, ut, quam, quanttipe~re, an, ne, num, utrum, anne, annon. 

Remark 1. The indicative is frequently used in dependent questions, 
especially in Terence and Plautus and occasionally in later poets ; as, Vide 
dvdritia quid f acit. Ter. So Virg. Eel. 5, 7. In the best prose writers the in- 
dicative generally indicates that the question is direct, or that the sentence is 
not a question ; as, Qucerdmus ubi mdleficium est, Let us seek there, where the 
crime actually is. Cic Nihil est admirdbilius, quam quomddo Me mortem filii 
tulit. 

Rem. 2. In double questions, ' whether — or,' the first may be introduced by 
utrum, or the enclitic ne, or without an interrogative particle. Hence there are 
four forms of double questions, — 1. utrum (or utrum ne), — an. 2. utrum, — an 

(anne). 3. -ne, an. 4. -ne, -ne ; as, Multum interest, utrum laus 

imminuatur, an sdlus deseratur. Cic. The interrogative particle utrum is not 
used in a single question; and num — an is used only in direct questions. The 
English ' or not ' in the second part, which is used without a verb, is expressed 
in Latin by annon or neene, either with or without a verb ; but necne occurs 
only in indirect questions; as, Dii utrum sint, necne sint, quanrxtur. Cic. — Ne — 
ne, an — an, or num — num scarcely occur except in poetical or unclassical lan- 
guage. 

Rem. 3. Dubito, dubium est, or incertum est an, delibero or hcesito an, and 
especially haud scio an, nescio an, though implying some doubt, have generally 
a sense almost affirmative. Compare § 198, 11, R. (e.) 

Rem. 4. Nescio quis, used nearly in the sense of aliquis, does not influence 
the mood of the following verb ; as, Sed edsu nescio quo in ea tempdra aitas nos- 
tra incidit. Cic. Liicus, nescio quo edsu, nocturno tempdre incensus est. Nep. 
So, also, nescio quomddo, ' somehoAv ' or ' in some way ' ; as, Sed nescio quomo- 
do, inlmret in mentlbus quasi augurium. Cic. In like manner mirum quam, mi- 
rum quantum, lumium quantum, and the like, when united to express only one 
idea, do not atiect the mood of the verb ; as, Sales in dicendo nimium quantum 
vdltnt, — very much. Cic. 

SUBJUNCTIVE IN INSERTED CLAUSES. 

§ 26G. 1. When a dependent proposition containing either 
an accusative with the infinitive, or a verb in the subjunctive, has 
a clause connected with it, as an essential part, either by a rela- 
tive, a relative adverb, or a conjunction, the verb of the latter 
clause is put in the subjunctive ; as, 

Quid enim potest esse tarn perspicuum, quam esse dliquod numen, quo haze rC- 
gantur? For what can be so clear as, that there is some divinity by whom 
the<e things :ire governed? Cic. Here the thing which is stated to be clear is, 
not merely esse aliquod numen, that there is a god, but also that the world is 
governed by him. Hence the latter clause, quo hcec reganiur is an essential part 
of the geneVal proposition. Illud sic fere definiri sdlet, decorum id esse, quod 
consentdneum sit hominis excelltntice. Id. Audiam quid sit, quod Epxcurum non 
probes, I shall hear why ir is that you do not approve of Epicurus. Id. Jussit 
ut, quie venissent, ndxet Eubozam peterent. Liv. 



280 SYNTAX. — SUBJUNCTIVE IN INSERTED CLAUSES. § 266. 

Remark 1. Hence the subjunctive is used in general sentences, in which 
the class of things mentioned exists only as a conception or idea, while the 
individual thing has a real existence ; as, Est enim ulciscendi et puniendi modus, 
atque haud scio an satis sit eum qui lacessierit injuria suce poznitere, i. e. each 
individual offender of the class. 

Rem. 2. When the principal proposition contains a subjunctive denoting a 
result, after ita, tarn, talis, etc., the inserted clause has the indicative; as, Asia 
vero tarn dplma est et fertllis, ut — multitudine earum rerum, quas exportantur, 
facile omnibus terris antecellat. Cic. The same is the case in definitions ; as, 
Videre igitur dportet, quce sint convenientia cum ipso negdtio, hoc est, quas ab re 
sepdrdre non possunt. Cic. — So also explanatory clauses, especially circumlo- 
cutions introduced by a relative pronoun, are sometimes found with the indic- 
ative ; as, Itdque ille Mdrius item eximie L. Pldtium dilexit, cujus ingenio putdbat 
ea, quas gesserat, posse celebrdri. Cic. 

Note. To this rule belongs the construction of the or alio obliqua, 'indirect 
discourse,' or ' reported speech,' in which the language of another is presented, 
not as it was conceived or expressed by him, but in the third person. Thus, 
Caesar said, ' I came, I saw, I conquered,' is direct, — Caesar said, that ' he came, 
saw, and conquered,' is indirect discourse. 

2. In the oratio obliqua, the main proposition is expressed by 
the accusative with the infinitive ; and dependent clauses con- 
nected with it by relatives and particles, take the subjunctive. 

Thus, Cicero and Quintilian, in quoting the language of Marcus Antonius, 
make use, the former of the oratio directa, the latter of the oratio obliqua ; — 
Antonius inquit, I Ars earum rerum est, quae sciuntur ', Antonius says, ' Art be- 
longs to those things which are known.' Cic. Antonius inquit, artem earum 
rerum esse, quae sciantur, Antonius says, that ' art belongs to those things 
which are known.' Quint. 

So, Socrates dicer e solebat, omnes, in eo quod scirent, satis esse eldquentes, So- 
crates was accustomed to say, that ' all were sufficiently eloquent in that which 
they understood ? Cic. Cdto mirari se aiebat, quod non rideret hdruspex, kdruspi- 
cem quum vidisset. Id. Negat jus esse, qui miles non sit, pugndre cum hoste. Id. 
Indigndbantur ibi esse imperium, ubi non esset libertas. Liv. Itdque Athenienses, 
quod hOnestum non esset, id ne utile quidem (esse) putdverunt. Cic. 

Remark 1. (a.) When the subjunctive would be necessary in the oratio 
directa, to denote liberty, power, etc., the same remains in the ordtio obliqua, 
and is not changed into the infinitive with an accusative; as, Ad haic Ariocistus 
respondit, quum vellet, congrederetur, To this Ariovistus replied, that 'he might 
meet him when he pleased.' Caes. In the oratio directa, this would be tongre- 
didris. 

(b.) The imperative in the oratio directa is, in the oratio obliqua, changed 
into the subjunctive; as, hoc mihi dicite, which in the oratio obliqua is, hoc sibi 
dicant, or hoc sibi dicerent, according to the tense of the leading verb. 

(c.) So also direct questions addressed to the second person, when changed 
from direct to indirect speech, become subjunctives. Liv. 6, 37. — But such 
questions when not addressed to the second person are expressed in the Oratio 
obliqua by the accusative with the infinitive ; as when in direct speech we say, 
Etiamsi vete/is coniumeliai obllvisci velim, num. possum etiam recentium injuria rum 
memdriam deponere? The oratio obliqua will be, (tesar respondit (histor. pert'.) — 
si veleris cont&mekce obllvisci vellet, nam etiam recentium injuridrum — memdriam 
deponere posse ? Ca3s. Very rarely the accusative with the infinitive is found 
in a question of the second person, as in Liv. 6, 17: but the subjunctive in 
questions of the third person is less uncommon in Caesar; as, Quis pdti posset? 
for quern pdti posse f Quis hoc sibi persudderet ? for quern sibi persudsurum ? See 
§ 273, 3. 

Rem. 2. A writer may state his own past words or thoughts in oratio obliqua, 
either preserving the first person, or adopting the third. 



§ 267. SYNTAX. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 281 

Rem. 3. When the inserted clause contains the words or sentiments of the 
subject of the leading clause, all references to. him are regularly expressed by 
the reflexives sui and suits ; as, Ilac necessitate coactus d6vii.no ndvis qui sit dperit, 
multa pollicens, si se conservasset. Nep. And this is equally true when the 
word to which the pronoun refers is not in reality the grammatical subject, 
provided it may still be conceived as such; as, Quum ei in suspiddnem viinisset, 
dliquid in epist6ld de se esse scriptum. Nep. ; for the words, quum ei in suspido- 
nem venisset, are equivalent to quum suspicdretur. See § 208, (1.) 

Rem. 4. The tenses to be used in changing the ordiio dlrecta into the obliqua, 
depend on the tense of the verb which introduces the quotation, according to 
the rule, § 258. But when the future perfect would be used in the direct, the 
pluperfect is necessary in the oblique form; but the perfect is used after the 
present, perfect definite, or future. 

Rem. 5. When the connected clause contains merely a descriptive circum- 
stance, or expresses what is independent of the sentiment of the preceding 
clause, it takes the indicative ; as, Imperdvit Alexander Lysippo, ut ebrum equi- 
tum, qui dpud Grdnicum ceciderant, facer -et stdtuas, Alexander ordered Lysip- 
pus to make statues of those horsemen who had fallen at the Granicus. 
Sometimes, in other cases, when it is evident from the sense, that the connect- 
ed clause is an essential part of the proposition, the indicative is used, to avoid 
giving the appearance of contingency to the sentence. 

3. A clause connected to another by a relative or causal con- 
junction, takes the subjunctive, (whatever be the mood of the 
preceding verb,) when it contains not the sentiment or allegation 
of the writer, but that of some other person alluded to ; as, 

Socrates accusdtus est, quod corrumperet juventutem, Socrates was accused 
of corrupting the youth, lit., because (as was alleged) he corrupted the youth. 
Deum invocabant, cujus ad solenne venissent, They invoked the god, to whose 
solemnities they had come. Li v. Quos viceris dmicos tibi esse cave credas, Do 
not believe that those whom you have conquered are your friends. Here, in 
the first example, the charge of corrupting the youth is not made by the 
writer, but by the accusers of Socrates. So, in the second example, the' wor- 
shippers allege that they have come to attend upon the solemnities of the god. 
In the last, it is implied by the use of the subjunctive mood, that the belief 
spoken of is that of the person addressed : — quos vicisii would have been merely 
an addition of the speaker, by means of which he would have designated the 
persons whose friendship he was speaking of; and, in general, the indicative, in 
such sentences, is employed in those statements which are independent of the 
sentiments of the person, to whose thoughts or words allusion is made. Cf. 
supra, 2, R. 5. 

Remark. In the preceding cases, it is not directly said that the sentiments 
are those of another than the writer. In Cicero, however, the words dico, puto, 
arbitror, and the like, are often construed in a similar manner, although, pro- 
perly speaking, not these verbs, but those in the clauses dependent on them, 
should be in the subjunctive; as, Quum enim, Hannibdlis permissu, exisset de 
castris, rediit paulo post, quod se oblltum nescio quod diceret,... because (as) he 
said, he had forgotten something. Cic. Ab Aiheniensibus, lOcum sepulture intra 
urbem ut ddrent, impetrdre nonpdtui, quod reliyiune se impediri dicer ent. Id. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

§ 207. The imperative mood is used to express a command, 
wish, advice, or exhortation ; as, 

Nosce te, Know thvself. Cic. jEquam memento servdre mentem, Remember 
to preserve an unruffled mind. Hor. Hue ades, Come hither. Virg. Pasce ca- 
pillar, et pdtum pastas age, et inter agendum occursdre capro caveto. Id. 
24* 



282 SYNTAX. — INFINITIVE MOOD. § 268. 

(1.) The imperative present denotes that an action is to be performed direct- 
ly or at once; as, lege, read; mdrere, die; or that a state or condition is to con- 
tinue; as, vlve, live. 

(2.) The imperative future denotes that something is to be done, as soon as 
something else has taken place ; as, Quum vdletudini tuce consulueris, turn con- 
sullto ndvigdtidni. Cic. Prius audlte paucis ; quod quum dixero, si pldcuerit, 
facltote. Ter. The precedent event is often to be supplied by the mind. 
Sometimes, especially in poetry, the imperative present is used for the impera- 
tive future, and, on the other hand, sclto and scitote, from scio, are used instead 
of the imperative present, which is wanting. 

(3.) Hence the imperative future is properly used in contracts, laws, and 
vrills ; and also in precepts and rules of conduct ; as, Regio imperio duo sunto, 
ilque consoles appellantor, miliiice summum jus habento, nemini parento, Wis 
stilus populi suprema lex esto. Cic. Non satis est pulchra esse poemdta, dulcia 
sunto. Hor. Ignoscito sape aMri, numquam tibi. Syr. 

Remark 1. With the imperative, not is expressed by ne, and nor 

by neve ; as, 

Ne tanta dnimis assuescite bella. Virg. Ne crede colori. Id. Hdminem mor- 
tuum in urbe ne sepellto, neve urito. Cic. 

Note. Non and neque occur, though rarely, with the imperative ; as, Vos 
quoque non cdris aures onertite lapillis, nee prodUe graves insuto vesilbus auro. 
Ovid. But with the subjunctive xised for the imperative non and especially 
neque are found more frequently. Cf. § 260, E. 6, (b.) — In Plautus and Terence 
ne is of common occurrence both with the imperative and with the present 
subjunctive, and with no difference of meaning; but later poets chiefly use ne 
with the present subjunctive, and ne with the imperative onlv when they speak 
emphatically. In classical prose writers the periphrastic noli with the infinitive 
is preferred. 

Kem. 2. The present and perfect subjunctive are often used instead of both 
tenses of the imperative, to express a command in a milder form, an exhorta- 
tion, or an entreaty; as, Qui ddipisci veram gloriam volet, justitiai fungatur 
officiis. Cic. Quod dubltas, ne feceris. Plin. Ep. See § 260, II., R. 6. An imper- 
ative of the pei-fect passive is very rarely found ; as, At vos admoniti nostr-is 
qudque edsibus este. Ovid. Jacta dlea esto. Ctes. in Suet. But the subjunctive 
is more common ; as, Jacta sit dlea. Sometimes also the future indicative ; as, - 
Sed valebis, medque negotia videbis, meque diis juvantibus ante brumam exspec- 
tabis, instead of vale, vide, exspecta. Cic. Ubi sententiam mtam vdbis peregero, 
turn quibus eddem pldcebunt, in dextram partem tdciti transibitis, instead of 
transltote. Liv. With the future the negative is non. See $ 259, E. 1, (4.) 

Eem. 3. Sometimes, for the simple affirmative imperative, cura or curat/) ut, 
fac ut, or fac alone is used with the subjunctive ; as, Cura ut quam pr'imum 
venias, Come as soon as possible. Fac erudias, Instruct, or Take care to in- 
struct. Cic. For the negative imperative fac ne, cave ne or cave alone, with 
the present or perfect subjunctive is used; but especially noli with the infini- 
tive; as, Noli putdre, Do" not suppose. Cic. Cave existimes, Do not think. Id. 
Nollte id velle quod non fieri potest, et cavete ne spe praisentis j)dcis perpetuam 
pdeem omittatis. Id. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

OF THE TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 

§ 2G8. 1. The infinitive partakes of the properties of the noun and 
verb, just as the participle combines the properties of the adjective and verb. 
It expresses simply the action or state implied in the verb in an abstract man- 
ner, without specifying either person, number, or time, and thus merely indi- 
cates whether an action is in progress or completed. 



§ 268. SYNTAX. — INFINITIVE MOOD. 283 

2. The tenses of the infinitive denote respectively an action 
as present, past, or future, in reference to the time of the verbs 
with which thev are connected ; as, 

Hoc f acere possum, I am able to do this. Cic. Vidi nostros inimicos ciipere 
bellum, I saw that our enemies were desiring war. Id. Nee gemere aerid ces- 
sabit turtur ab ulmo } Nor shall the turtle dove cease to coo from the lofty elm. 
Virg. — Viciorem victce succubuisse queror, I complain that the victor has 
yielded to the vanquished. Ovid. Se a senibus audisse dicebant, They said 
that they had heard (it) from the old men. Cic. Audiet elves acuisse ferrum 
juvenilis. The vouth will hear that the citizens have whetted the sword. Hor. — 
Negat sese verlum esse facturuni, He declares that he is not about to speak. 
Cic. Postquam audit-rat non datum Iri filio uxbrem suo, After he had heard 
that a wife would not be given to his son. Ter. Semper existimabitis nihil 
horum vos visuros fore, You will always suppose that you are to see none of 
these things. Cic. 

Remark 1. (a.) The present and perfect infinitives are sometimes called re- 
spectively the infinitives of incomplete and of completed action. The present in- 
finitive, however, is sometimes used to denote a completed action. This is the 
usual construction with memini ; but in such case the speaker transfers him- 
self to the past, and the expression denotes rather a recollection of the pro- 
gress than of the completion of the action; as, Hoc me memini dicere, I remem- 
ber my saying this. Cic. Teucrum memini Sidona venire, I remember Teucer's 
coming to Sidon. Virg. So with memorid teneo. Cic. Phil. 8, 10. Scribit also 
is construed like meminit ; as, Cic. Off. 3, 2 : and after the same analogy, and 
for the sake of vivid expression Cicero says, M. Maximum accepimus facile 
eelare, tacere, dissimulare, etc., though speaking of things which he had not 
witnessed himself. So, also, with recorder ; — Recorder longe omnibus unum an- 
teferre Demosthenem. Cic. When the action is spoken of simply as a fact, the 
perfect infinitive is used with memini ; as, Meministis me ita distrlbuisse causam. 
Cic. 

(b.) The passive voice having no simple form for expressing the completed 
state of suffering makes use of the combination of the perfect participle with 
esse ; as, dmdtus esse, to have been loved. When thus combined esse loses its 
own signification of a continued state, and when this state is to be expressed, 
another infinitive must be chosen; as, Constrictam jam horum conscienlid teneri 
conjurdtionem tuam non rides ? Cic. Sometimes, however, when no ambiguity 
can arise, esse in the usual combination retains its original meaning; as, Apud 
Pl&tonem est, omnem morem Ldcedcemoniorum inflammatum esse cupiditdte vin- 
cendi. Id. Here injlammdtum esse expresses a continued or habitual state. — 
Fuisse with the perfect participle denotes a state completed previous to a certain 
past time ; as, Jubet bono dniino esse ; sopitum fuisse rcgem subito ictu. Liv. 

Rem. 2. To express the result of an action rather than its progress, the per- 
fect infinitive is sometimes used instead of the present, especially after satis 
hdbeo, satis mihi est, pudet, contentus sum, melius ertt, volo or a verb of equivalent 
meaning; as, Bacchdtur rates, magnum si pectwe possit excussisse deum. Virg. 
Quum illam nemo velit attigisse. Plin. The poets use the infinitive perfect where 
we should expect a present; as, Tendentes Pelion imposuisse Olympo. Hor. 

Rem. 3. The present infinitive is also sometimes used for the future, espe- 
cially when the verb has no future ; as, Desine fata deum flecti sperdre, Cease 
to hope that the fates of the gods will be changed. Virg. Progeniem Trojdno 
a sanguine duci audicrat. Id. Cras mihi argentum dare dixit, i. e. se ddturum 
esse. Ter. Cdto affirmat se vivo ilium non triumphare. Cic. 

Rem. 4. (a.) The infinitive future active is formed by a combination of the 
participle future active with esse; as, dmdturus esse; the infinitive future pas- 
sive by a combination of the supine in um with iri ; as, dmdtum iri. These 
future infinitives denote an action or state as continuing. The participle in 
rus, which properly expresses intention (see § 162, 14), takes also the infinitive 
fuisse to express a past intention ; as, Scio te scripiurum fuisse, I know that 



284 SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. § 269. 

you have had the intention to write, whence it was an easy transition to the 
sense, ' you would have written,' in conditional sentences, when the condition 
is not fulfilled. This infinitive is used especially in the apodosis of hypotheti- 
cal sentences, where in direct speech the pluperfect subjunctive would be 
used (cf. § 162, 14, R. 3.); as, Ftiamsi obtemperasset auspiciis, idem eventurum 
fuisse puto. Cic. In like maimer the infinitive future with esse is used in the 
apodosis of hjmothetical sentences instead of the imperfect subjunctive ; as, 
Libertus, nisi jurasset, scelus se facturum (esse) arbitrdodtur. Id. 

(b.) Instead of the future infinitive, in both voices, futurum esse or f6re y 
followed by ut and the subjunctive, is often used ; the present and imperfect 
subjunctive, in such cases, denoting an unfinished, the perfect and pluperfect 
a finished, future action ; as, Numquam putdvi fore, ut supplex ad te venirem, 
I never supposed (that it would happen) that I should come a suppliant to you. 
Cic. Suspicor fore, ut infringatur hdminum imprdbitas. Id. Creaebam fore, ut 
epistdlam scripsisses. — So, also, in the passive for a continued state of future 
suffering the present and imperfect are used ; as, Credo fore, ut epistdlam scri- 
batur, and, Credebam fore, ut epistdla scnberetur. But to express a completed 
state in future time the perfect participle is employed; as, Quos spero brevi 
tempore tecum copulatos fore. Cic. Quod videret nomine pdcis bellum involutum 
fore. Id. This construction is necessarily used, when the verb has either no 
future active participle, or no supine ; as, in such case, the regular future infin- 
itive cannot be formed; as, Spero fdre ut sapias. — Fore is found in two pas- 
sages pleonastically joined with the future participle active, viz. Te ad me 
fore venturum. Cic. Att. 5, 21 : and Quum senatus censeret — libenter facturos 
fore. Liv. 6, 42. 

Rem. 5. (a.) The periphrastic infinitive formed by the future active partici- 
ple with fuisse, denotes a future action contingent upon a condition which was 
not fulfilled; and, in the apodosis of a conditional sentence, corresponds to the 
pluperfect subjunctive ; as, An censes me tantos labores suscepturum fuisse, si 
tisdem finibus gloriam medm quibus vltam essem termindturus ? Do you think 
that I should have undertaken so great labors if, etc. Cic. Ut perspicuum sit 
omnibus, nui tanta dcerbitas injuria} juissel, numquam illos in eum Idcum progres- 
suros fuisse,. ...that they never would have come into that place. Id. 

(b.) Futurum fuisse with ut and the imperfect subjunctive passive, corres- 
ponds to the infinitive fuisse with the future participle active in a conditional 
proposition; as, Nisi nuncii essent alldti, existimdbant plerique futurum fuisse, 
ut oppidum amitteretur,...that the town would have been lost. Cses. 

(c.) The participle future passive cannot be used to form an infinitive future 
passive, since it always retains the meaning of necessity, and in this sense has 
three regular infinitives, dmandum esse, dmandum fuisse, and dmandum fdre ; 
as, Instdre hiemem, aut sub pellibus habendos milites fore, aut differendum 
esse in mstdtem bellum. Liv. ** 

Rem. 6. In the apodosis of a conditional sentence, the perfect infinitive, 
like the past tenses of the indicative, (see § 259, R. 4.), sometimes corresponds 
to the pluperfect subjunctive; as, ( Dixit) sibi vitam filice sua cdriorem fuisse, 
si libera^ ac pudicai v'lvere lidtum fuisset, (He said) that the life of his daughter 
had been dearer to him than his own, if it had been permitted.... Liv. This 
use of the perfect infinitive is necessary, when the verb has no future partici- 
ple ; as, Equidem Plutdnem existimo, si genus fdrense dicendi tractdre voluisset, 
c/rdvissime et cdpiosissiine potuisse dlcere, — would have been able to speak. Cic. 

S ^5t5»l# The infinitive may be regarded either as a verb or as an ab- 
stract noun, (a.) As a verb it is used either indefinitely (§ 143, 4), or with a 
subject of its own, which is put in the accusative, (§ 239). But the infinitive 
passive of neuter and sometimes of active verbs, like the third person singular 
of that voice, maybe used impersonally or without a subject; as, Vides toto 
prSperari litdre, YW see a stir is made all along the shore. Virg. See §^ 209, 
R. 3, (2.), and 239, R. 4. The present infinitive has sometimes, in narration, a 
subject in the nominative. See $ 209, R, 5. 



§ 269. SYNTAX. — INFINITIVE MOOD. 285 

(b.) As a noun, the infinitive, either alone or with a subject-accusative,has 
two cases, the nominative and the accusative, and is accordingly used either 
as the subject or the object of a verb. 

THE INFINITIVE AS THE SUBJECT OF A VERB. 

The infinitive, either with or without a subject-accusative, 

may be the subject of a verb ; as, 

Ad rempublicam periinet me conservari, It concerns the state that I should 
be preserved. Cic. Numquam est utile peccare, To do wrong is never useful. Id. 
Mdjus dedecm est parta amittere quam omnino non paravisse. Sail. In the first 
example conservari with its subject accusative me is the subject of pertinet, 
and is equivalent to 'my preservation': in the second, peccare is the subject 
of est utile. See § 202, 2, and HI. R. 2. 

Remark 1. A general truth may be expressed by the infinitive without a 
subject; as, Fdcinus est vincire civem Rdmanum, To bind a Roman citizen, or, 
that one should bind a Roman citizen, is a crime. But in such case the verb 
esse and verbs denoting to appear, to be considered or called (§ 210, R. 3.), re- 
quire the noun or adjective of the predicate to agree with the implied subject 
in the accusative ; as, JEquum est peccdtis veniam poscentem reddere rursus. 
Hor. Atticus maximum aistimdvit qutestum, memorem gratumjwe cognosci. Nep. 

Note. The indefinite pronoun dliquem or dliquos may in such cases be sup- 
plied, and the same indefiniteness may be expressed by te or nos, cf. § 209, R. 7 ; 
but it is still more frequently expressed by the infinitive passive. Hence the 
sentence Fdcinus est vincire civem Rdmanum, may also be expressed by Fdcinus 
est vinciri civem Rdmanum. So, Quum vtderent de edrum virtute non desperari. 
Nep.* — The impersonal verbs licet, decet, dportet, dpus est, and necesse est, when 
there is no definite subject, are joined with the infinitive active alone; but 
when there is a subject-accusative, they are connected with the passive con- 
struction ; as, a c t. licet hoc facere ; decet specimen cdpere ex hac re; pass, licet 
hoc fieri • decet specimen cdpi. 

Rem. 2. The infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, is often the 
subject of a proposition, when the substantive verb with a noun, a neuter ad- 
jective, or an impersonal verb forms the predicate. Of this kind are jusium, 
cequum, verisimile, cvnsentdneum, dpertum — est, erat, etc., necesse est, opus est ; — 
apj/drtt, constat, convenit, decet, licet, dportet ; intelligitur, perspicitur, etc. ; as, 
Cui verba dare difficile est. Ter. Mendacem memorem esse dportet. Quint. 
Legem brevem esse dportet. Sen. Constat prdfecto ad sdlutem civium inventas 
esse leges. Cic. Non enim me hoc jam dlcere pudebit. Id. See § 209, R. 3, 
(5.), (a.) 

Rem. 3. The infinitive may itself be the subject of an infinitive; as, Audio 
non licire cuiquam in nave cdpillos deponere. Ter. 

Rem. 4. The infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may also be 
the predicate nominative; as, Impune quailibet facere id est regem esse. Sail. 
In this sentence facere is the subject, and regem esse is the predicate ; for id, 
which only represents by a kind of apposition the clause impune quailibet facere, 
can be omitted. 

Rem. 5. When the infinitive esse, (or others of similar meaning, as, fieri, 
rye re, vit/im degere, cedere, dbire, etc.), with a predicate adjective (or noun), is 
joined with licet, such predicate is put in the accusative, if the subject-accusa- 
tive of the infinitive is expressed, and sometimes, also, when it is omitted, but 
more frequently, in the latter case, the predicate adjective or noun is attracted 
to the dative following licet; as, Ut eum liceat ante tempus consulem fieri. 
Auct. ad Her. Medios esse jam non Hceoit. Cic. Si civi Romano hcet esse 
Gsditanum. Id. — Licuit enim esse otioso Themistodi. Id. Mihi negllgenti esse 
nun licet. Id. Sibi vitam filial sua cdridrem fuisse, si liberae ac pudlcse vivere 
Ucitum fuisset (scil. ei). Liv. So also necesse est with the predicate in the 



286 SYNTAX. — INFINITIVE MOOD. § 270. 

dative. Vo6is necesse est fortlbus viris esse. Liv. — But licet, oportet, and necesse 
est are also joined with the subjunctive mood, and hence is derived the con- 
struction of licet as a conjunction. See § 263, 2. 

THE INFINITIVE AS THE OBJECT OF A VEEB. 

§ 370. The infinitive, either with or without a subject-ac- 
cusative, may be the object of a verb ; as, 

Ecec vitare cupimus, We desire to avoid this. Cic. Poetas omriino non conor 
attingere, I do not at all attempt to read the poets. Id. Sententiam valere 
cupierunt, They desired that the opinion should prevail. Id. Spero te valere, 
I hope that you are well. Id. 

Note. The infinitive as the object of a verb supplies the place of the accusa- 
tive of the thing, and hence many active verbs besides the infinitive take in 
the active voice an accusative of the person, cf. § 231, B. 3, (b.), and in tho 
passive retain the infinitive ; as, Consules jubentur scribere exercitum. Muros 
adire vetiti sunt. Cf. § 234, 1. 

Remark 1. The infinitive alone may also depend upon an adjec- 
tive, and sometimes upon a noun. 

(a.) It may depend upon relative adjectives, (see § 213, E. 1), which, by the 
poets, are joined with the infinitive instead of their usual construction with the 
genitive of the gerund, etc. ; as, Cedere nescius. Hor. Avidi committere pug- 
nam. Ovid. Cupidus morlri. Id. Cantdre periti Arcades. Virg. Callidus con- 
dire furto. Hor. Quidlibet impotens sperdre. Id. Sutrinas facere inscius. Varr. 
Insuetus vera audlre. Liv. Certa mori. Virg. Fellcior unguere tela. Virg. 
So, Audax omnia perpeti, Eesolute to endure every thing. Hor. Sollers orndre 
Cypassis, Skilful to adorn. Ovid. Segnes solvere nodum. Hor. Indocilis pau- 
periem pdti. Id. Non lenis fata recludere. Id. See § 213, E. 4, (1.) 

(b.) It may also depend upon adjectives signifying usefulness, fitness, etc., 
which are sometimes by the poets construed with the infinitive instead of the 
dative ; as, ( Tibia) asplrare et adesse chdris erat utilis. Hor. JEtas mollis et \ 
apta regi. Ovid. Fons etiam rivo dare nomen idoneus. Hor. Fruges consumers i 
nati. Id. And after dignus and contentus ; as, Dignus dmdri. Virg. Cf. § 244, 
E. 2, (b.) 

(c.) Upon a noun; as, Tempus est Tiujus libri facere finem, It is time to 
finish this book. Nep. Iniit consilia reges tollere, He devised a plan to destroy 
the kings. Id. Fa erat confessio caput rerum Romam esse. Liv. Cfipldo inces- 
serat JEthidpiam in vis ere. Curt. Quibus in dtio \v7hrQ copia erat. Sail. So, Nee 
mxhi sunt vires inimlcos pellere tectis, instead of pellendis inimlcis, or ad pellendos [ 
inimlcos. Ovid. 

(d.) If for the infinitives depending on nouns or adjectives other nouns were 
substituted, these last would be put in the genitive, dative, or ablative ; and ; 
hence such infinitives may perhaps be properly regarded as exceptions to the - 
rule, that the infinitive has but two cases, the nominative and the accusative. 

A 

Eem. 2. (a.) The infinitive with the accusative sometimes stands uncon- 
nected, especially in exclamations and indignant interrogations, where credibile 
est? or verumne estf maybe supplied; as, Mene incepto desistere victam? That 
I, vanquished, should desist from mv undertaking? Virg. Ale miserum ! te in 
tantas a^rumnas propter me incadisse ! Cic. — But ut, also, with the subjunctive, 
either with or without an interrogative particle, may be used to express a ■ 
question with indignation; as, Elne. (soil, patri) ego ut adverser? Liv. Tu ut 
umquam te corrigas? Cic. Judlcio ut drdtor decumdnum persequatur? Id.; 
where fieri pdtest ? may be supplied. 

(b.) So, in the orutio obllqua, the words signifying said, saying, etc., are often 
omitted, or implied in a preceding verb or phrase; as, Id facile effici posse, H\ 
8cil. dixit. Nep. Quern signum datiirum fugientibus 1 Curt. 



§ 271. SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. 287 

Rem. 3. The infinitive is sometimes to be supplied; and esse and fuisse 
with a predicate adjective, and also in the compound forms of the infinitive, 
both active and passive, are commonly omitted, especially after verbs of say- 
ing, thinking, knowing, and perceiving ; as, Vos cognovi fortes. Sail. Quern put- 
sum memordvi. Tac. — So, also, with the infinitive perfect passive when depend- 
ing on vdlo, nolo, cupio, and oportet; as, Addlescenti viorern gestum oportuit. Ter. 
Quod jam pridem factum oportuit. Cic. — Sometimes in a relative clause an in- 
finitive is to be supplied from the finite verb of the main proposition; as, 
Quos vdluit omnes interfecit, scil. interflcere. Ne illam quldem consequuntur, 
quum putant, grdtiam; i. e. quam se consecuturos putant. Cic. 

THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUB JE CT- ACCUSATIVE. 

§ 371. The infinitive, without a subject-accusative, is used after 
verbs denoting ability, obligation, intention or endeavor ; after verbs 
signifying to begin, continue, cease, abstain, dare, fear, hesitate, or be 
wont; and after the passive of verbs of saying, believing, reckoning^ 
etc. 

Note 1. To these classes belong possum, queo. nequeo, valeo, debeo ; euro, cdglto, 
dcremo. statuo, constituo, instltuo, pd.ro ; conor, nltor, tendo, contendo, tento, matitro, 
prdp&ro, aggrSdior, persdvero, ; — cozpi, incipio, pergo, desmo, dSsisto, intermitto, parco, 
rdcvso; sillm, assuesco, consuesco, insuesco ; audeo, vereor, metuo, rZformido, timeo, 
horreo, d ' libit o : — awtior, credor, existlmor, fcror, n£gor,nuntior, pcrhibeor, putor, trador, 
jubeor, videor, and cogor. ■ 

Note 2. When the preceding verbs are joined with esse, Jiaberi, judicari, 
videri, etc., the predicate noun or adjective is put in the nominative; as, Solet 
tri-tis videri; aude sapiens esse ; coepit inihi molestus esse; debes esse diligens; 
potest liber esse : and so also meretur, scit, didicit liber esse. 

Note 3. The poets, in imitation of the Greeks, use the infinitive after fuqe, 
aufer, cave, parce, memento ; paveo, refugio, quairo, urgeo, laboro, amo, gaudeo, 
furo, calleo, sumo, mitto, remitto, pdtior, jilro, conjuro, pugno, ndtus, and some 
other verbs, especially to denote a wish or purpose ; as, Introiit tidere. Ter. 
Non te frangere persequor. Hor. Non populdre pendtes venimus. Virg. In this 
construction, the poets are sometimes imitated by the later prose writers. 

Remark 1. Many of the verbs above enumerated, instead of the infinitive, 
may be followed by the subjunctive with ut, ne, etc.; and with some of them 
this is the regular construction ; as, Sententiam ne diceret, recusavit. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The passives dlcor, trador, feror, narror, reperior, existimor, videor, 
etc., may either be used personally, with the infinitive alone, or impersonally, 
followed* by the accusative with the infinitive. Thus we may say, Mater 
Pausdnice eo tempore vixisse dlcitur, or, Dlcltur eo tempore mdtrem Pausdnice 
vixi>-e, The mother of Pausanias is said to have been living.. ..or, It is said 
that the mother of Pausanias was living.... Nep. The former construction is 
more common especially with videor, see § 272J R. 6; but the latter is frequent 
with nunlidtur, and very common with the compound tenses, trddltum est, 
pvoditum est, etc., and with the participle future passive; as, credendum est, 
mtelllgendum est, etc. ; as, Quorum neminem tdlem fuisse credendum, etc. Cic. 

Rem. 3. The infinitive without a subject is used after a verb, only when it 
denotes an action or state of the subject of that verb. 

Rem. 4. The verbs to vnsh or desire, volo, nolo, mdlo; cupio, oplo, studeo, have 
a twofold construction: — the infinitive without a subject-accusative is used 
after them, when the subject remains the same; and when followed by esse, 
hdberi, etc., the predicate-noun or adjective is in the nominative; — but the 
accusative with the infinitive is used when the subject is changed, or when a 
reflexive pronoun of the same person follows. We say, therefore, vdlo ertiditus 
fieri, and on the other hand, vdlo te erudltum feri, and vdlo me ervdltum fern. 
So, V6lo is esse, quern tu me esse vdluisti. Cic. Cupio me esse cleimntem, cupio — 



288 SYNTAX. — INFINITIVE MOOD. § 272. 

me non dissdlutum videri. Id. ; or, omitting the pronoun, cupio esse clemens nee 
dissolutus videri. — Omnis homines qui sese student prcestdre ceteris dnimdlibus, 
etc. Sail. 

Note 4. Volo is used with the present infinitive passive ; as, Me dmdri vdlo, 
I wish to be beloved ; hoc velim intelligi, I wish this to be understood ; and also 
with the infinitive perfect passive to denote the eager desire that something 
should be instantly accomplished; as, Legdti quod erant appelldti superbius, 
Corinihum patres vestri — exstinctum esse voluerunt. Cic. ; but it occurs most 
frequently with the omission of esse ; as, hoc factum volo ; nunc illos commonl- 
tos velim: so, patriam exstinctam cupit. 

Note 5. The nominative with the infinitive after verbs of saying, perceiv- 
ing, etc. (§ 272), is rare even in poetry, and is an imitation of the Greek idiom, 
which requires the nominative with the infinitive when the same subject re- 
mains; as, Phdselus ille, quern videtis, hospites, ait fuisse ndvium celerrimus. 
Catull. Quia retulit Ajax esse Jovis nepos, instead of se esse Jovis 
Ovid. Sensit medios delapsus in hostes, instead of se delapsum esse. Virg. 

THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUB JE CT- A C CUS ATI VE. 

§ 55T55. The infinitive with a subject-accusative follows verbs 
of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiving, and the like ; as, 

Videbat, id non posse fieri, He saw that that could not be done. Nep. Sentit 
animus, se sua vi, non dliend, moveri. Cic. Audlvi te venire. Me in ejus potes- 
tdte dixi fore. Id. Affirmant militum jdcere dnimos. Liv. Scepe venit ad aures 
meas, te istud nimis crebro die ere. Cic. Earn pugnam ad Perusiam pugndtam 
(esse), quidam auctores sunt. Liv. 

Note 1. This rule includes all such verbs and phrases as denote the exercise of the 
external senses and intellectual faculties, or the communication of thought to others ; 
as, audio, video, sentio, antmadverto, cognosco, intelligo, percipio, disco, scio, nescio, 
censeo, spero, despero, cogtto, judtco, credo, arbitror, piito, opinor, diico, statuo, rnemxni, 
rccordor, obliviscor, opinio est, spes est, etc.; — dlco, trado, prodo, scribo, re/Sro, narro, 
nuntio, confirmo, ncgo, ostendo, indtco, doceo, certi.orem facio, demonstro, pSrlilbeo, 
promitto, polltceor, spondeo, etc. ; hut with most of these a different construction often 
occurs. See § 273. 

Note 2. The propositions, whose subjects are thus put in the accusatiye and their 
verbs in the infinitive, are those which are directly dependent on the verbs of saying 
and perceiving. Respecting the clauses inserted in such dependent propositions, see 
§ 266, 1. 

Note 3. (a.) When a relative clause inserted in a proposition containing 
the accusative with the infinitive, has the same verb as the proposition in 
which it is inserted, but such verb is not repeated, the noun which is the sub- 
ject of the relative clause is also put by attraction in the accusative ; as, Te 
suspicor eisdem rebus, quibus me ipsum, commoveri. If the verb is expressed 
we rmist say, eisdem rebus commoveri, quibus (ego) ipse commoveor. So, also, 
in inserted relative clauses where the verb, if expressed, would be in the sub- 
junctive, (see § 266, 2.); as, ( Verres) aiebat se tantidem cestimasse, quanti Sacer- 
dotem, for quanti Sdcerdos cestimasset. Cic. Cbnfitetur se in ed parte fuisse qua 
te, qua virum omni laude dignum patrem tuum. Id. 

(6.) The same is the case with the particle quam after a comparative, see 
§ 256, R. 5, (a.) But sometimes when quam connects a clause to a preceding 
proposition containing the accusative with the infinitive, the same construction 
follows that precedes quam, even when the verb of the latter clause is express- 
ed; as, Nonne iibi ajjirmdvi quidvis me pdtius perpessuvum, quam ex Italia ad 
helium civile me exiturum; instead of quam exirem or quam ut exirem. Cic. 

(c.) In long speeches in the ordtio obliqua, relative clauses, having a verb 
of their own which should properly be in the subjunctive, are put in the ac- 
cusative with the infinitive, if the relative clause is not subordinate to the one 
with the infinitive, and which is governed by a verb of saying or perceiving, 



§ 272. SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. 289 

but is rather coordinate with it; in which case the relative is equivalent to the 
demonstrative with et; as, Ncun illdrum urbem id propugnaculum oppdsitum esse 
bnrbdris, apud quam jam bis classes regias fccisse navfrdgium ; for et apud earn 
jam bis, etc. — In Livy and Tacitus the same construction sometimes occurs 
even after conjunctions ; as after quum in the sense of ' while,' see § 263, 5, R. 3 ; 
after quamquam on account of its absolute signification, see § 198, 4, and after 
quia. 

Note 4. The personal pronouns, which, with the other moods, are expressed 
only when they are emphatic, must be always expressed in the accusative 
with the infinitive. The verbs 'to promise' and 'to hope' are in English 
usually joined with the infinitive present without a pronoun, but in Latin not 
only is the pronoun expressed, but the infinitive which follows is in the future; 
as, ' He promised to come,' is in Latin, Promisit se venturum (scil. esse, sea 
$ 270, R. 3). But the infinitive present sometimes occurs after these verbs; 
as, Pollicentur obsides dure, Caes. B. G. 4, 21 ; and the pronoun is occasionally 
omitted, see \ 239, R. 2 and 3. 

Remark 1. "When ambiguity would arise from the subject and the object 
of the verb being both in the accusative, the passive infinitive is substituted 
for the active, by which means the subject is put in the ablative, or in the 
accusative with per ; as, Ne fando quidem aud'dum est, crocodllum violdtum esse 
ab JUgyptio; instead of JSgyptium crocodllum violasse. Cic. 

Rem. 2. After verbs of saying, thinking, etc., the conjunction that is omitted 
in translating from English into Latin, and the subject of the dependent clause 
is put in the accusative, and its verb in the infinitive. 

Rem. 3. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes rendered into Eng- 
lish by a similar form; as, Si vis me flere, If you wish me to weep. Hor. ; but 
the dependent clause is more frequently connected to the verb of saying, etc., 
by the conjunction that, and the infinitive translated by the indicative or po- 
tential mood ; as, Sentimus nivem esse atbam, We perceive that snow is white. 
Cic. Sometimes the dependent clause is annexed to the other without the 
conjunction; as, Credunt se negllgi, They think they are neglected. Ter. 

Rem. 4. A present infinitive corresponds to the imperfect indicative, when 
with an accusative it follows a preterite tense; as, Dixit Ccesdrem venire, He 
said that Caesar was coming. Caes. In like manner the perfect infinitive with 
an accusative after a preterite tense corresponds to the pluperfect indicative; 
as, Dixit Gcesdrem venisse, He said that Caesar had come. See § 268, 2. 

Rem. 5. The present infinitive, after verbs of sense, is often equivalent to 
the present participle; as, Surgere videt lunam. He sees the moon (to rise) 
rising. Virg. Anna rutil'are vident. Id. Videois collucere faces. Id. Nee 
Zepkyros audis spirareV Do you not hear the zephyrs blowing? Id. Saipe hoc 
ma j ores naiu dlcere audivi. Cic. The two constructions are sometimes united; 
as, Medium video discedere caelum, palantesgw polo sttllas. Virg. 

Rem. 6. The subject-accusative after verbs of saying, showing, and believing; 
as, duo, nego, trddo, fero, memdro, nrtrro, nuntio, pi'nhibeo, prodo, scrlbo, ae- 
monstro, ostendo, arguo, credo, puto, erisilmo, and the like, and also after jubeo, 
veto, and prdhiieo, is regarded also as the accusative of the object after these 
verbs; and hence such verbs are used also in the passive, the accusative of the 
active voice becoming, as usual, the nominative of the passive. This is espe- 
cially the case when their subject is indefinite; as, Dlcunt (they or people say) 
me vtirum probum esse, or dleor vir prdbus esse. So, Vetdmur hoc fdcere, instead 
of, Nos hoc fdcere veUmt. Instead also of the impersonal videiur (it appears) 
followed by the infinitive with its subject-accusative, it is common to say 
personally,' videor, videris, etc., with the infinitive; as, videor errasse, it appears 
that I have erred. 

25 



290 SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. § 273. 

INFINITIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES. 

§ ST3. When the particle that, in English, introduces a 
clause denoting a purpose, object, or result, it is a sign of the 
subjunctive in Latin, and is to be expressed by ut, etc. ; but 
otherwise it is usually the sign of the accusative with the infini- 
tive. Cf. §§ 262 and 272. 

1/ (a.) Verbs of endeavoring and resolving take after them the in- 
finitive and more rarely the subjunctive, when the subject remains 
the same; but when the subject is changed, they take the subjunc- 
tive only. 

Note 1. Such are statuo, constttuo, decerno, tento, laboro, paro, me'ditor, euro, nltor, 
contendo, consilium capio, animum or in animum induce Cf. \ 271, N. 1. After opS- 
ram do, t exert myself, id. hoc, or Mud ago, I endeavor, nihil antiquius habeo or duco 
quam, nothing is of more importance to me, and video for euro, the subjunctive is al- 
most exclusively used. 

(&.) Verbs of effecting are construed with ut or ne and the sub- 
junctive. 

Note 2. Such are facto, efficio, perficio, evinco, pervinco, impetro, assequor, cons%- 
quor, etc. But facere ' to effect ' occurs in Cic. Brut. 38, in connection with the accusa- 
tive and infinitive passive. 

Note 3. Facio with ut is also used as a periphrasis for the indicative ; as, 
Invltus quidem feci, ut L. Flaminium e sendtu ejicerem, for invltus ejeci. Cic. — 
Fac, ' suppose ' or ' granting,' and eficere, ' to prove,' take the accusative with 
the infinitive; but the passive efficitur, 'it follows,' .takes also the subjunctive. 
— Facere, ' to introduce ' or ' represent,' is joined with a present or perfect 
participle ; as, Lcelium et Sclpionem f acimus admlrantes. Cic. In the passive 
the accusative also with the infinitive is found, there being no present par- 
ticiple ; as, Isocratem Pluto laudari f acit a Socrate. Cic. 

2. Verbs signifying to request, to demand, to admonish, to advise, to 
encourage, to command, and the like, both when the subject remains 
the same and when it is changed, are followed by the subjunctive 
with ut or ne, and only rarely by the infinitive. 

Note 4. (a.) Such are rogo, oro, precor, pcto ; posco, postulo, ftagito'; moneo, ad- 
mdneo, commoneo, hortor, cohortor, exhortor, suadeo, persuadeo, insfituo, (I instruct), 
impello, cogo, mando, prcescribo, edlco, decerno, legem do, censeo, perpello, excito, in- 
cito, impSro, etc.; as, Te non hortor solum, sed etiam oro, ut tota mente in rempublicam 
iucumbas. Cic. 

(b.) In the poets and later prose writers the infinitive more frequently fol- 
lows those verbs without any difference of meaning. The poets even use the 
infinitive to express a purpose; as, Proteus pecus eyit altos vasere nvontes. Hor. 

(c.) Nuntio, scrlbo, mitto, and even dlco, are followed by the subjunctive, 
when they imply an injunction or intention that something should be done; 
as, Hcec ut facias, scribo. Cic. 

(d.) Jiibeo and veto commonly take the accusative with the infinitive, but 
sometimes the subjunctive with or rarely without ut. Sometimes, Avith the 
infinitive, the person to whom the command is given is omitted, especially 
when it is either obvious from the nature of the command or indefinite ; as, 
Castra munire jubet, scil. milites. Ca3s. Lex rede facere jiibet, scil. homines. 
Gic. With the subjunctive the dative of the person sometimes follows jiibeo ; 
as, BrUannico jussit, exsurc/eret. Tac. — Impero is sometimes followed by the 
accusative with the infinitive passive; and so also is censeo, I vote, or, I ordain. 
The latter is often construed with the participle in das with esse expressed or 
understood ; as, Carthdginem deltudam censeo. 



§ 273. SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. 291 

(e.) MSneo and admdneo, ' I remind,' and persuddeo, 'I convince,' take the 
accusative with the infinitive. 

3. (a.) In the oralio obllqua, the construction of the accusative with 
the infinitive, is exchanged for that of the subjunctive, to denote pos- 
sibility, liberty, duty, etc. ; as, 

Virginius unum Ap. Claudium legum expertem esse aicbal : respicerent tribunal 
homines castellum omnium scelerum. Liv. 

(b.) On the contrary, when the subjunctive has been used after a verb of 
requesting, commanding, etc., the construction often passes into that of the 
accusative with the infinitive; the verb of saying being considered as implied 
in the verb of requesting, etc. ; as, Ordbat ne se ut parricidam liberum aversa- 
rentur: sibi vltam film sua cdriorem fuisse, si.... Liv. Cf. § 270, K. 2, {b.) 

4. («.) Verbs which denote willingness, unwillingness, permission, 
and necessity, commonly take the infinitive, or the accusative with the 
infinitive, but sometimes the subjunctive. 

Note 5. Such are volo, nolo, malo, opto, permitto, patior, slno, concedo, licet, prtilii- 
beo< oportet, and nccesse est. Cf. § 271, R. 4. Volo ut is used to express a strong em- 
phasis. Nolo is not construed with the subjunctive. 

{b.) An infinitive passive without a subject is sometimes used with dportet; 
as, ]Yon dportuit relictas, scil. esse ancillas. Ter. Ut ut erat, mansum tdmen 
dportuit, scil. esse. Id. Non putdbant de tali viro suspicionibus dportere judicari. 
Nep. 

(c.) Some other verbs which regularly take the accusative with the infini- 
tive after them, are occasionally followed by the subjunctive. 

5. Quod, ' that,' commonly with the indicative, introduces a sub- 
stantive clause containing the explanation or ground of the predicate 
or of some other word in the principal clause. 

Remark. The subjunctive follows quod in those cases only in which the 
clause expresses the view or sentiment of some other person than the writer 
or speaker. Cf. § 266, 3. 

Quod is used: — 

(1.) After such expressions as bene, male, prudenter fdcio ; bene, male Jit ; 
eve/tit, accidit, and the like ; proztcreo, mitto ; and generally adde, accedit, etc. ; 
as, Bene f'uis, quod me adjucas. 

(2.) To introduce the explanation of a noun, pronoun, or pronominal adverb 
in the principal clause; as, Magnum benef Icium est ndturoz, quod nccesse est 
in iri. 

(3.) After verbs signifying an affection of ihe mind, and the outward expres- 
sion of such feeling ; and also after verbs of praising, censuring, accusing, and 
thankmg. 

Note 6. Such are gaudeo, delector, gratum, or jucundum est mthi, angor, dSleo, cpgre, 
mii'este, or graffiter f&ro, sueoenseo, pce.nitet, mlror, admlror, glorior, gratulor, gratias 
tig-', r/iicrnr. indignor, and others of similar meaning ; as, Scipio sa>.pe querebitur, quod 
omnibus in rSbus hSmtnes diligenti&res essent, ut, etc. Cic. Gaudeo quod te inter- 
pell.ivi. Id. Quod spiralis, quod vocem mittttis, quod formas hSminum tidbetis, iudig- 
nantur. Liv. Cato mlrari se aicbat, quod non ridcret hdruspcx, ivdrusplcem quum vtde- 
ret. Cic. 

Note 7. After those verbs which express the feeling of joy, grief, etc.; as, 
gaudeo, ddleo, rmror, the accusative with the infinitive is more commonly 
found, but those which denote the outward expression of such feeling are more 
commonly construed with quod ; but sometimes this distinction is reversed. 
Gratulor is commonly joined with quod. 



292 SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. § 274. 

Note 8. A purely objective proposition is expressed by quod only when it 
depends upon addo, (generally in the imperative adde), or upon fdcio joined 
with an adverb ; as, Adde quod pubes tibi crescit omnes. Hor. Adde huc_ quod 
mercem sine fucis gestat. Id. Fecit humaniter Licinius, quod ad me vesperi venit. 
Cic. In all other cases the infinitive is employed in purely objective propo- 
sitions. 

6. By the infinitive, with or without a subject-accusative, a proposition is 
expressed as a thought, so that it resembles an abstract noun ; by quod, with 
the indicative or the subjunctive, it is represented simply as a fact. To the 
latter is frequently joined hoc, id, illud, istud, or hue, etc. ; as, Illud qudque nobis 
accedit incommodum, quod M. Junius dbest. Cic. Hue accedebat, quod, etc. Sail. 
Quod generally refers to past time, and hence it is preferable to say, GrdtissU 
mum mihi est, quod ad me tua manu scripsisti; but with the infinitive, Grat'usl- 
mum mihi est te bene valere. 

(a.) Quod, with the indicative, in the sense of as to, or with regard to, is used 
at the beginning of a sentence, especially in letters, in repeating an expression 
of a person for the purpose of answering it; as, Quod autem me Agdmtmvunt/n 
azmuldri putas, falleris. Xep. Quod ' scribis te telle scire, qui sit reipublicce. statu.*: 
summa dissensio est. Cic. Sentences thus introduced by quod are in no gram- 
matical connection with the verb that follows them. See § 206, (14.) 

(b.) Quod is used in explanatory or periphrastic propositions which refer to 
a preceding demostrative pronoun, as' hoc, id, etc., unless such pronoun be 
added pleonastically, in the nominative or accusative, to verbs governing the 
accusative with the infinitive ; as, Mihi quidem videntur homines hac re maxime 
belluis praistdre, quod loqui possunt. Cic. 

Note 9. The construction of the infinitive resembles, in the fol- 
lowing particulars, that of a noun in the singular number and neuter 
gender : — 

(a.) Like a noun, it may have an adjective or pronoun agreeing with it; as, 
Totum hoc philosophari d'isplicet. Cic. Quum vivere ipsum iurpe sit nobis. Id. 
He hoc ipsum nihil agere delectat. Id. Meum intelligere nulla pecunid vendo. 
Petr. See § 205, E. 8. 

(&.) It may be followed by a hmiting genitive; as, Cujus r&n dlmicare fuit 
vincere. Val.'Max. 

(c.) It may be either the subject or object of a verb. See §§ 209, R. 3, (5,) 
and 229, E. 5. It may also be used after neuter verbs, like an accusative, 
depending on a preposition understood; as, Te accepisse mens llteras gaudeo. 
Ter. See §§ 232, (2,) and 273, 5. 

(d.) It is also used like a predicate-nominative; as, Videre est perspicere 
aliquid. Cic. See § 210: 

(e.) It may, like a genitive, limit the signification of an adjective or noun. 
See § 270, E. 1. 

(/.) It may, like an accusative, depend on a preposition; as, Aristo et Pyrrho 
inter optime valere et grdvissime agrotare, nihil prorsus dicebant inieresse. Cic. 
Quod crimen dicis praster amasse meum? Ovid. Jnveniet nil sibi ligatum, propter 
plorare. Hor. 

(g.) It is used also like an ablative; as, Audito regem in Siciliam tendere. 
Sail. 

(h.) Sometimes, also, especially in the poets, it denotes a purpose, like a 
participle in dus, (see § 274, E. 7.); as, Loricam donat habere viro. Virg. ; or 
like a dative of the end, (see § 227.) 

PARTICIPLES. 

§ £74:. 1. Participles are followed by the same cases and 
constructions as their verbs ; as, 



§ 274. SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. 293 

Quldam, poeta ndmindtus, A certain one, called a poet. Cic. Catulorum dbllta 
leccna, The lioness forgetful of her whelps. Virg. Fdventes rebus Carihd ginien- 
sium, Favoring the interests of the Carthaginians. Liv. Tendens ad sidera pal- 
ma?. Virg. Accusdtas rei capitalis. Cic. Prima dicte mihi summd dicende Ca- 
tnena. Hor. Omnia doctus. Stat. Casus dbies visura mdrinos. Id. Cdmturi ar- 
Dore montes. Ovid. Parcendum est teneris. Juv. Utendum est setate. Ovid. 
L. Brutus arcens reditu tyrannum, in proelio concidit. Cic. 

2. The present, perfect, and future active participles, denote re- 
spectively an action which is present, past, or future, in reference to 
the time of the verb with which they are connected; as, 

Simul hoc dlcens attolUt se. Virg. Turn ad Thraseam in hortis agentem mis- 
sus est. Tac. Turnum fflgientem tuzc, terra videUtt Virg. Qui missus ab Argis 
Rati considered urbe. Id. Lamia munere cedilitatis perfunctus, petit prmturam. 
Cic. Jussus cum fide paenas luam. Hor. Juvenis medios moriturus in hostes 
irruit. Virg. Periturus iti/exit seSe in agmen. Id. Ilia tibi ventura bella expe- 
diet. Id. 

Note. The participle expresses the action or state of the verb, and also 
marks its complete or incomplete state or condition. Cf. § 144, 1-3. Except, 
however, in deponent verbs, the Latin language has no active participle de- 
noting a completed action, equivalent to the English ' having written,' nor any 
passive participle denoting a state of suffering still going on, equivalent to the 
English present participle 'being loved.' 

Remark 1. The present participle, particularly that of the verb eo, some- 
times denotes that which is about to be done; as, Interclusit hiems, et terruit 
Auster euntes, .... as they were on the point of going. Virg. Nee nos via fallit 
euntes. Id. 

Rem. 2. (a.) The present participle, also, sometimes denotes a purpose ; as, 

Jbant, orantes veniam to sue for favor.... Virg. Exirypylum scitantem drdcula 

Phcebi mittimus. Id. (b.) It is also used to express a state or condition, where, 
in English, a substantive is employed with a preposition; as, igndrans, from 
ignorance; metuens, from fear; consuldtum petens, in his suit for the consulship; 
am ne malum nascens facile opprimitur, — in its origin. 

Rem:. 3. (a.) The perfect participle passive, especially in the poets, often 
denotes the result of a past action, and thus supplies the place of a present 
participle passive: as, Ndtus cvdlat p"ned tectus cal'tgine... .covered with pitchy 
darkness. Ovid. Cf. Virg. Mn. 1, 480; 2, 277; 4, 72, 589; 5, 113, 708; 6, 335: 
Georg. 1, 204. It is often to be translated by a present active participle; as, 
Mdnu pectus percussa decorum, Jtdventesque abscissa comas, i. e. percutiens, ab- 
S( indens. Virg. Tunsse pectdra palmis. Id. So, also, sdlitus, ausus, fisus, and 
the perfect participles of deponent verbs; as, Longum cantu sdlata Idbdrem. Id. 
Vox audltur fractos suiiitus Imitata tfibdrum. Id. Dioitidcus Gesdrem complexus, 
obsecrdre cazpit. Cass. Concretos sanguine crines gerens. Virg. Tonsis in val- 
libus, i. e. quag tondentur. Id. 

(b.) The perfect participle of a preceding verb is often used in a succeeding 
clause, to express the completion of an action; as, Exercitum fundit fugatque, 
f usum persequitur. Liv. This idiom frequently occurs in Ovid. 

Rem. 4. Hdbeo, with perfect participles denoting knowledge and determina- 
tion ; as, cognitum, perspectum, perceptum, comprehensum, explordtum, stdtutum, 
cons&iutu in. delibt ■ rdtum, persudsum mihi hdbeo, etc., forms a periphrasis, like the 
passive verb in English, and equivalent to cogndci, perspexi, percepi, etc., in- 
stead of the verb of the participle; as, Clddii dnii/iuni perspectum or cogmtum 
hdbeo ; for perspexi, etc., I perceive, know. Persudsum mihi hdbeo and persvd- 
sissimum heweo are used only in the neuter gender and with an accusative with 
the infinitive in the sense of mihi persudsi or persudsum mihi est. When hdbeo 
with any other participle than those above indicated is used, it expresses more 
than the ordinary perfect active; as, Quod me hortdris ut absolvam ; habeo ab- 
solutam suave epos ad Ckesdrem; i. e. I have it ready. Cic. Do, reddo, euro, 
25* 



294 SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. § 274. 

teneo, possideo, and missum fdcio, are sometimes so construed with participles ; 
as, Missam iram faciei, for mittet. Ter. Eostes victos dare, for vincef-e. Sail. 

Rem. 5. («.) The passive participles may supply the place of a verbal noun 
in io or us, the perfect being employed to represent an action as completed, 
and the future when it is conceived as still incomplete; as, Ante Romam condl- 
tam, Before the building of Rome. Cic. Consilia urbis delendse, Plans for the 
destruction of the city. Id. See § 275, II. With the limitations about to be 
made in regard to the nominative, this construction is used in all the cases, 
and even when they are governed by the prepositions, ad, ante, ob, post, prop- 
ter ; ab and ex ; as, .flee Uteres recltatse magnum luctum fecerunt, The reading 
of this letter. Liv. Tdrentum captum, The taking of Tarentum. Ob receptum 
Hannibdlem, On account of the reception of Hannibal. Sibi quisque csesi regis 
expetebat decus, The glory of killing, or, of having killed the king. Propter 
Africam domitam. Eutrop. Ante Epaminondam natum. Nep. Post Christum 
natum. Ab condlta urbe aJliberatam. Liv. The oblique cases only of partici- 
ples in dus are used in this manner as the nominative denotes necessity, (see 
Rem. 8,) and even the perfect participle is not thus used in the nominative by 
Cicero. 

(b.) The neuter of the perfect passive participle without a noun is used by 
Livy, as the subject of a proposition; as, Tentatum per dictdtorem, ut ambo pa- 
tiicii consules credrentur, rem ad interregnum perduxit : i. e. the attempt, or 
the fact of the attempt being made by the dictator. Compare a similar use 
of this participle in the ablative, § 257,' R. 9, (1.) (c.) 

(c.) The English 'without' with a verbal substantive; as, 'without writing, 
without having waited,' etc., is expressed in Latin by means of a negative 
noun, adjective or particle connected with a participle; as, Ctesar exercitum 
numquam per insidiosa itinera duxit, nisi perspeculatus locdi'um situs, without 
having examined the localities. This form occurs often with the ablative 
absolute ; as, Athenienses non exspectato auxilio adversus ingentem Persdrum 
exercitum in prozlium egrediuntur, without waiting for assistance. So, nulla 
praestituta die, Without fixing any time. Cic. Miserum est nihil perficientem 
angi. Id. 

Rem. 6. (a.) The participle in rus, especially with verbs of motion, often 
denotes intention or purpose; as, Ad Jdvem Ammonem per git consultants de 
drigine sua, He goes to Jupiter Amnion, to consult respecting his origin. Just. 

(&.) It is also used where in English a clause connected by since, when, al- 
though,, etc., is employed; as, Plura locuturos dblre nos jussit, When or although 
we intended to say more. Eerculem Germdni, ituri m proeMwm cdnunt. Tac. 
Hence it is sometimes used, though not by Cicero, to express the inference 
from a hypothetical proposition; as, Egreditur castris Romdnus, vallum invasu- 
rus, ni copia pugnai Jieret. And with the repetition of the preceding verb ; as, 
Dklit mihi quantum maxime pdtuit, daturas amplius, si potuisset, i. e. ac dedissei 
amplius. Plin. Ep. 

Rem. 7. (a.) The participle in dus, also, denotes a purpose passively, when 
joined with verbs signifying to give, to deliver, to agree Jor, io have, to receive, 
to undertake, etc. Such are do, trddo, tnbuo, attribuo, mando, mitio, permitto, 
concedo, redimo, conduco, Idco, hdbeo, accipio, suscipio, relinquo, euro, dfposco, 
rdgo; as, Testdmentum tibi trddit legendum, He delivers his will to yon to read. 
Hor. Attribuit nos trucldandos Cethego. Cic. Quod titendum acciperis, reddito. 
Id. Cdnon muros dlrutos a Lysandro reflciendos curdvit, — ordered them to be 
restored. Nep. 

(b.) But the same meaning may be expressed actively by means of ad and 
the gerund; as, Ca-sar oppidum ad diripiendum m'dUibus concessit. — The poets 
sometimes use the infinitive active for the same purpose ; as, Trislitium et me- 
tus tradam prdte-rvit in mare Caspium portare ventis. Hor. In prose such use 
of the infinitive is of exceedingly rare occurrence ; as, Bibere dare. Cic. 



§ 274. SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. 295 

Rem. 8. (a.) The participle in dus, when agreeing with the subject 
of a sentence, has the signification of necessity or propriety ; some- 
times, though rarely, except in later writers, that of possibility ; as, 

7s venerandus a nobis et c51endus est, He should be worshipped and honored 
by us. Cic. Delenda est Carthago, Carthage must be destroyed. Cato. Hose 
spersLnds.' fuemnt. Virg. So with est used impersonally ; as, L T t rum pace nobis 
an bello esset utendum. Cic 

(b.) Sometimes, also, when not agreeing with the subject of a sentence, it 
has this signification; as, Facta nan-abas disslmulanda tibi, You were relating 
facts which you should have concealed. Ovid. A. L. Bruto principe hujus 
maxime conservandi generis et nominis. Cic. 

Rem. 9. The participle in dus, in its oblique cases, supplies the place of a 
present participle of the passive voice, to denote a continued or incomplete 
action ; as, Occupatus sum in Uteris scrlbendis, in writing letters ; literally, in 
letters which are being written. See § 275, II. — So, also, in the poets both in 
the nominative and oblique cases ; as, Trlginta magnos volvendis mensibus orbes 
imperio explebit. Virg. Volvenda dies. Id. Cf. Yoiventibus annis. Id. 

Rem. 10. After participles in dus, the person by whom a thing must be 
done, is put in the dative, but in a few passages even of Cicero it is found in 
the ablative with ah. See § 225, III. 

Rem. 11. The neuter of the participle in dus, joined with a tense of esse in 
the periphrastic conjugation (see § 184, 3,) retains the signification of necessity; 
as, Aiuleiidum est, We must venture. In early writers and sometimes also in 
the poets, an accusative of the object is joined with this neuter, if the verb 
i- transitive; as, Nunc pacem orandum, nunc — arma reponendum, et bellum exi- 
tidle cdvendum. Sil. But in classical Latin such accusative is generally changed 
to the nominative, and the participle is made to agree with it in gender and 
number. Thus, instead of virtutem laudandum est, we usually find virtus lau- 
danda est. The accusative in this connection is used by Cicero in only two 
passages. Utendum est with the ablative occurs more than once in Cicero ; as, 
Quum suo cuique judicio sit utendum. 

Rem. 12. In classical prose the participle in dus never has the signification 
of possibility, except when joined with fix; as, Vix optandum nobis vldebdtur. 
Cic. Vix erat credendum, i. e. vix credi poterat. Later writers use it in this 
sense with negative particles, and at a later period it was used with still more 
frequency in the sense of possibility as well as in that of necessity. 

[■*- 3. (a.) A participle is often employed, instead of a verb, in a 
conditional, explanatory, adversative, relative, or other dependent 
clause ; as, 

Curio, ad fdcum sedenti (as he was sitting) magnum auri jyondus Sammies 
attulerunt. Cic. Trldui viam progressi, rursus reverterunt ; for, quum progi essi 
e.<stnt. Cais. Diunysius tyrannus, Syrdcusis expulsus, Corinlhi pueros ddcebat. 
Cic. Dionysius, cullrus metuens tonsorios, candenti carbone sibi ddurebat cdpillutii. 
Id. R'tsus interdum ita repente erumpit, ut eum cupientis tenere nequeamus. Id. 
Cicon'uB abituraj congregantur in loco certo. Plin. 

Note 1. If the participle refers to a noun not contained in the leading proposition, it 
is put with that noun in the ablative absolute. See § 257, R. 3. 

Note 2. (a.) The English clauses most frequently expressed in Latin by means of par- 
ticiples are such as are connected by relatives or by as, when, after, alt/iough, since, be- 
eause,etc.f as. Nemo observat lunam nisi laborantem. Sen. Ut Senilis, Sic animus, se 
nan videos, alia cernit, — though not perceiving itself. Cic. Servllius Ahala Spunum 
MceHum. regnum appetentem, intirem.it, — because he was aspiring to the sovereignty. 
Cic. — (6.) When a participle is connected with a relative or interrogative it can only be 
translated by a circumlocution; as, Non sunt ta bona dicenda, quibus abundantem licet 
esse miserfimum, — which one may possess in abundance, and still be very miserable. 
Cic. Scn&tus absurdum esse dlcebat, ignorare rlgtm, quid sperans aut petens vc?iSrit, — 
with what hope or request he had come. Liv. 



296 SYNTAX. GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. § 275. 

(b.) "When two verbs are in English connected by and, and the actions de- 
noted by them are regarded as simultaneous, one of them may be expressed 
in Latin by the present participle; as, He sits and holds his lute, Tile (Avion) 
sedens cithdram tenet. Ovid. Simulhoc dicens attollit in cegrum se femur. Virg. 
i. e. hoc elicit et attollit. But if one of the actions precede the other, the 
perfect participle must be used; as, Ca;sar attacked and defeated the enemy, 
Caesar hostes aggressus fugavit. Submersas obrue puppes, i. e. Submerge et 
obrue. Virg. — When the English clause would be connected by although, the 
participle is often followed by tdmen. Later writers in such case join the par- 
ticles quamquam, quamvis, etiam and vel with the participle itself; as, Ccesarem 
milites, quamvis recusantem ultro in Africam sunt secuti. Suet. ; and these are 
sometimes retained in the ablative absolute. — It is only in late Latin that par- 
ticiples are sometimes used in describing persons as 'possessing certain attri- 
butes, e. g. adslantes, audientes, for ii qui adstant, audiunt, i. e. the bystanders, 
hearers. 

(c.) A participle is used with verbs signifying to represent and perceive, 
especially to see and hear, when the object is described or perceived in a parti- 
cular state ; as, Apelles pinxit Alexandrum Magnum fulmen tenentem. Plin. In 
English the infinitive is often joined with verbs of seeing and hearing; as, 
Audlvi te cdnentem, I heard you sing. Audivi te cdnere, would be, I heard that 
you sung. Videmus Polyphemum vastd se mole moventem. Virg. 

Note 3. In many cases, for want of a perfect participle active, and a present participle 
passive, this construction cannot be used. Thus, quum amavisset cannot be exchanged 
for a participle corresponding with the English having loved. As the perfect participles 
of deponent verbs, however, have an active signification, they admit of the participial 
construction. The want of a perfect active participle may also be supplied by the perfect 
passive participle in the ablative absolute. See § 257, R. 5. 



GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 

§ $£75* I. Gerunds are governed like nouns, and are fol- 
lowed by the same cases as their verbs ; as, 

Metus parendi sibi, Fear of obeying him. Sail. Parcendo victis, By sparing 
the vanquished. Liv. Efferor studio patres vestros videndi, I am transported 
with a desire of seeing your fathers. Cic. Petendi consulatum gratia. Sail. 
Venit ad recipiendum pecunias. Varr. 

Eemark 1. The gerund is the same in form as the oblique cases of the 
neuter singular of participles in dus, but it has the meaning of the active voice. 
It is sometimes translated by the present participle with a preposition, and 
sometimes by a present infinitive active; as, Consilium Ldcedannonem occu- 
pandi, A design of occupying, or to occupy, Lacedsemon. Liv. 

Rem. 2. The gerund is sometimes, though rarely, used in a passive sense ; 
as, Spes restituendi nulla erat, — of being restored. Nep. Athenas erudiendi 
valid missus, — for the purpose of being instructed. Just. Ante domandum. 
irg. Ades ad imperandum. Cic. 

Rem. 3. The gerund is in its nature a verbal noun, having only the genitive, 
dative, ablative, and, after a preposition, the accusative. In its signification it 
corresponds with the English present participle when used as a verbal noun. 
Hence, in the oblique cases, it supplies the place of a declinable present infin- 
itive active; but in the accusative there is this difference between the infini- 
tive used as an accusative and the gcruud, that the infinitive has simply the 
power of an abstract noun, whereas the gerund expresses a real action'; as, 
Multum interest inter dure et accipere. Sen. Nan solum ad discendum propensi 
sumus, sed etiam ad ddcendum. Cic. 



6 



f 






§ 275. SYNTAX. GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 297 

II. When the object of an active verb is to be expressed, the 
participle in dus is commonly used in preference to the gerund ; 
the object taking the case in which the gerund, if used, would 
have been put, and the participle agreeing with it. 

Thus, to express ' the design of -writing a letter,' which, with the aid of the 
gerund, would be represented in Latin by Consilium scribendi epistdlam, the 
participle in dus is commonly substituted for the gerund: and since, in this 
example, the gerund, (scribendi) is in the genitive, the rule requires that, in 
substituting the participle for the gerund, the object of the gerund {epistolam) 
should also'be put in the genitive, and that the participle (scribendus) should 
agree with it in gender, number, and case. Hence with the participle the ex- 
pression is, Consilium scribendce epistolw. Between the two forms of construc- 
tion there is no difference of signification. So, Consilia urbis delendse (Cic), 
for urban delendi, Plans for destroying the city. Reparandarum classium causa 
(Suet.), for reparandi classes. Perpetiendo labori idoncus. Colum. Ad defen- 
dendam Romam ab oppugnanda Capua duces Rdmdnos abstrdhere. Liv. 

Remark 1. The same construction is used with the future passive partici- 
ples of utor, fruor, fungor, p&tior, and rarely of medeor, as these verbs were 
originally followed by the accusative ; as, yEtas ad haic utenda idonea. Ter. 
Jusliiue fruendae causa. Cic. In munere fungendo. Id. Hostes in spem pStiun- 
dorum castrorum venerant. Caes. Aqvxz sdlubrUdte medendisjwe corporibus nob- 
Ues. Veil. 

Rem. 2. "When a participle is thus used for a gerund, it is called a gerundive, 
and is usually translated like a gerund. The gerundive cannot be substituted 
for the gerund, where ambiguity would arise from the gender not being dis- 
tinguishable. It should therefore not be used when the object of the gerund 
is a neuter pronoun or adjective; as, Aliquid fdciendi ratio (Cic), not dlicujus. 
Artem et vera el falsa dijwlicandi (Id.), not verorum dijudicandorum : because it 
would not be known whether dlicujus and verorum were masculine or neuter. 
It is to be remarked, also, that the change of the gerund into the gerundive is 
less frequent in some writers than in others. 

Til. Examples of the construction of gerunds, in each of their cases, have been al- 
ready given, among other nouns, under the heads Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ab- 
lative. The following remarks specify in what connections they are used : and when it 
is said that the gerundive is governed in any of the cases like the gerund, it will of course 
be understood of the noun which is limited by a gerundive. 

Remark 1. The genitive of gerunds and gerundives may follow 
either nouns or relative adjectives ; as, 

Amor hdbendi. Cic. Pairiam spes vklendi. Virg. 'Namhdbet ndtura, ut dlidrum 
omnium rlrum, sic Vivendi mddum. Cic. Barbara consuetudo hominum immd- 
landorum. Id. Postremo Cdtiliaa dissimulandi causa aid sui expurgandi, in 
sendlum venit. Sail. Iniia sunt consilia urbis delendse, clvium trucidandurum, 
numinis Itumdni exstinguendi. Id. Venandi studidsi. Cic. Certus eundi. Virg. 
Jnsto'ius ndvigandi. Cass. Perltus cmtdtis regendxe. Nep. 

(1.) The nouns after which these genitives most frequently occur are amor, 
ars, causa, consilium, consui'tudo, cdpia, cupiditas, dcsiderium, difficultas, finis, 
fdcultas, forma, gratia, illecebra, libido, locus, licentia, modus, materia, mos, 
occdsio, dtium, potestas, ratio, spdtium, spes, studium, tempus, usus, venia, vis, 
voluntas. 

Note 1. With these and other substantives the infinitive also may be used, 
when with a tense of sum they form a periphrasis for a verb which is followed 
by the infinitive, or supply the place of an adjective of which the infinitive is 
the subject; as, Quib us omnia honesta atque inhdnesta vendere mos erat, With 
whom it was a custom, or, who were accustomed. Sail. Tempus est abire, It is 
time, i. e. tempeslivum est, it is proper to go. 



298 SYNTAX. GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. § 275. 

. (2.) The relative adjectives, which most frequently take after thern these 
genitives, are such as denote desire, knowledge, remembrance, and their contra- 
ries ; as, dvidus, cupidus, studiosus, peritus, imperitus, insuetus, certus, conscius, 
igndrus, rudis, etc. See § 213, R. 1, (3.) 

Note 2. With the relative adjectives the infinitive is also joined poetically. 

(3.) Instead of an accusative after the gerund, or a genitive plural with a 
gerundive, a noun or pronoun in the genitive plural is sometimes joined with 
the gerund ; as, Exemplorum eligendi potestas, instead of exempla eligendi, or, 
exemplorum eligenddrum. Cic. Earum rerum infitiandi ratio. Id. Fdcultas agro- 
rum condonandi. Cic. Nominandi istorum erit copia. Plaut. 

(4.) The pronoun tui and also the plurals vestri and sui, even when feminine, 
are joined with the masculine or neuter form of the gerundive in di ; as, Quo- 
niam tui videndi est copia. Plaut. Non vereor, ne quis hoc me vestri adhortandi 
causa magnifice loqui existimet. Liv. In castra venerunt sui purgandi causa. — 
With the demonstrative pronouns, ejus, hujus, illius, the participle usually 
agrees, but in two passages of Terence ejus, though referring to a woman, has 
the participle in di, not in doe; as, Ego ejus videndi cupidus recta consequor. Ter. 
Tui in the first example and ejus in the last are feminine. 

(5.) By a Greek idiom the gerund and gerundive, after the verb sum, are 
sometimes found in the genitive denoting a tendency or purpose, with no noun 
or adjective on which they can depend; as, Eegium imperium initio conservandre 
llbertatis fuerat. Sail. Sometimes esse in some form is to be supplied ; as, 
Quai postquam gloriosa modo, neque belli patrandi cognovit, soil. esse. Id. Causa 
or gratia may sometimes be supplied. In some other cases, also, the word on 
which the gerund in di depends is not expressed, and the gerund seems to be 
used instead of the infinitive ; as, Mdneat provincialibus potentiam suam tali 
modo ostentandi, scil. fdcultas. Tac. Quum hdberem in dnimo navigandi, scil. 
prbpdsitum. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The dative of gerunds and gerundives is used after adjec- 
tives which govern a dative (§222), especially after those which sig- 
nify usefulness or fitness ; and also after certain verbs and phrases, 
to denote a purpose ; as, 

Charta empdretica est inutilis scribendo. Plin. Capessendae reipublicoi hdbilis. 
Tac. Ut nee triumviri acclpiundo, nee scriba, ref erundo sufficerent. Liv. Ldcum 
oppido condendo capere. Id. Non fuit consilium agrum colendo aut venando 
intentum atdtem dgere. Sail. Tiberius quasi firmandxB vdlctudini in Campaniam 
concessit. Tac. Quum solvendo aire alieno respublica non esset. Liv. Quum sol- 
vendo civitdles nOn essent, — were insolvent. Cic. 

(1.) The verbs and phrases upon which this dative most frequently depends 
are, Studere, intentum esse, tempus impendere, tempus consumere or insumere, ope- 
ram dare, sufficere, satis esse, deesse, esse, signifying to serve for, to be ade- 
quate to, and, in later writers, on verbs of motion. — The dative of the gerund 
after sum is usually supposed to depend on idoneus understood ; but see § 227, 
R. 3. 

(2.) The dative of the gerundive, denoting a purpose, is also used after 
names of office; as, Decemviri leglbus scrlbendis, i. e. the ten commissioners 
for drawing up a code of laws. Liv. So, Cdmitia creandis dficemviris. Id. 
Triumvir os agro dando creat. Id. 

(3.) A purpose is more commonly expressed by (id and the accusative of 
the gerund, or by a clause with ut, than by the dative; as, Pecus ad vescendum 
ho, ■in tubus apta. Cic. 

Rem. 3. The accusative of gerunds and gerundives follows the 
prepositions ad, to, or inter, during or amid, and sometimes ante, circa, 
or oh ; as, 



§ 276. SYNTAX. — SUPINJ56. 299 

Ad poenitendum properat, qui cito judlcat. Pub. Syr. Inter Ubendum, While 
drinking. Just. Ad tolerandos fdcUius labores. Quint. Ad castra fdcienda. Cic. 
Ob absolvendum. Id. 

Note. The construction of the gerundive instead of the gerund almost in- 
variably occurs here when the object of the gerund is to be expressed. 

Rem. 4. The ab.lative of gerunds and gerundives follows the pre- 
positions a, (ab), de, e, (ex), or in ; or it is used without a preposi- 
tion, as the ablative of cause, manner, or means ; as, 

Aristotelem non determit a scribendo. Cic. Ex assentando. Ter. Non videor 
a defendendis hominlbus discedere. Cic. Crescit eundo. Virg. Rem qucerunt 
mercaturis f aciendis. Cic. Ordtionem Ldtlnam legendis nostris efficies plenid- 
rem. Id. 

Note 1. This ablative also occurs, though rarely, after pro and cum; as, 
Pro vaptilando. Plaut. Cum loquendo. Quint. 

Note 2. Generally with the ablative of the means, and always with the ab- 
lative after a preposition, the gerund, when its object is to be expressed, is 
changed to the gerundive. In a few passages the ablative of the gerundive is 
differently construed; as, Nullum officium referenda gratia mdgis neeessdrium 
est, instead of relatione gratia,. §256. Cic. Nee jam possidendis publieis agris 
contentoa esse. § 244. Liv. Is finis fuit ulciscenda Germdnici morte, — in aveng- 
ing the death of Germanicus. Tac. ; where the ablative seems to imply time. 
§ 253. 

SUPINES. 

§ /* • ©• Supines, like gerunds, are verbal nouns, having no other cases except 
the accusative and ablative singular. In certain connections they supply the place of 
the present infinitive; the supine in um having an active and the supine in u a passive 
signification. As in the case of gerunds, we are to regard their construction both as 
verbs and as nouns. As verbs we are to notice their government, as nouns, their de- 
pendence. 

I. Supines in um are followed bj the same cases as their 

verbs ; as, 

Non Gratis servltum. matribus Ibo, I shall not go to serve Grecian matrons. 
Virg. Te id admomtum venio. Plaut. 

II. Supines in um follow verbs of motion, and serve to denote 
the purpose of the motion ; as, 

Cubitum discesstmus. Cic. Ire dejectum monumenta regis._ Hor. Legati 
vemrvmt questum injurias, ei res repetttum. Liv. Quum spectatum Judos 'tret. 
Nep. So after participles; as, Patrvgm defensors revdedfois. Nep. Spectatum 
admissi. Hor. 

Note. The construction of the supine in i/m, considered as a noun, is analogous to 
that of names of places in answer to the question 'whither? ' (§ 237), the notion of pur- 
pose arising from its verbal character. 

Remakk 1. Supines in um sometimes follow verbs which do not express 
motion; as, Do flliam nuptum. Ter. Vos ultum injurias hortor. Sail. 

Rem. 2. The supine in um with eo literally signifies * I go to do a thing,' and 
hence ' I intend,' or, ' am going to.' Instances of this use are found in Plautus 
and Terence and in the prose writers later than Cicero; as, Ilea Glycerium, 
qui! agist cur te is perdltum? Why are you going to destroy yourself? Plaut. 
Bonorum prcemia ereptum eunt. Sail. With eo the supine in um often forms a 
periphrasis equivalent to the same mood and tense of the verb from which the 



300 SYNTAX. ADVERBS. § 277. 

supine is formed; as, Ne bonos omnes perdttum eant (Sail.), for perdant. Erep- 
tum eunt (Id.), for ertpiunt. Ultum Ivit (Tac), for ultus est. Ultum ire injuria* 
festlnat, i. e. ulcisci. Sail. 

Eem. 3. The supine in urn most frequently occurs with the infinitive in, 
with which it forms the future infinitive passive; as, Brutum visum in a me 
puto. Cic. In this construction the accusative properly depends upon the su- 
pine, and m is used impersonally; < I suppose that I am going to see Brutus. 
X 184 2, (a.) Its notion of futurity is derived from the proper signification ot 
the active voice, as perditum iri, to go to destroy, the idea of intending passing 
easily into that of futurity. 

Rem. 4. But to express a purpose Latin winters in general prefer using a 
gerund or gerundive in the accusative with ad or in the genitive with coma or 
gratia, a subjunctive clause with ut or qui a present or future f/ive participle, 
and sometimes poetically an infinitive. See § 275, E. 1, 2: §§ 262, 264, 2/4, 
and 271. 

III. The supine in u is used to limit the meaning of adjec- 
tives signifying wonderful, agreeable, easy or difficult, worthy or 
unworthy, honorable or base, and a few others ; as, 

Mirdbile dictu! Wonderful to tell, or to be told ! Virg. Jucundumcognituat- 
que audltu, Pleasant to be known and heard. Cic. -Res factufacihs A thing 
easy to be done. Ter. Fdcilia inventu. Gell. Incredibile memoratu. Sail, lur- 
pia dictu. Cic. Optimum facta. Id. 

Note The principal supines in u in common use are audltu, cognitu, dictu, factu, in- 
ventu mlmoratu and natu, which occurs in the expressions, grandis major minor-, 
S3 minimus nam. In magno natu, of an advanced age, and maxima natu 
7™ the eldest son, natu is the ablative of a verbal substantive, since neither gerunds 
nor supines are joined with adjectives. *r\* 7 - 

Remark 1. The principal adjectives, after which the supine ' m f ?^™^JfS% 
arduus awer. bonus, deformis, dignus,rndignus, dulcis, durus, facihs, difficiUs,Jaidus, 
ZS^SZt^horreidus, incrldibilis, jucundus, injucundus, magnus, memoroMhs, 
mollis, procllvis, pulcher, rarus, turpis, and utilis. 

Eem. 2. The supine in u is used also after the nouns fas, nefas, and opus; 
as Hoc fas est dictu. Cic. Nefas dictu. Ovid. Dictu dpus est. Ter.-In the 
following examples it follows a verb: Fudet dictu. Tac. Agr. 32. Dictu fastid- 
ienda sunt. Val. Max. 9, 13, 2. 

Rem. 3. As the supine in u is commonly translated by a passive form it is placed un- 
der thona4ve voice- but, in many cases, it may with equal or greater propriety be 
£S&ffi3S«ff% • noun,its construction may be referred to the ablative of limi- 
tation. § 250. 

Rem. 4. (a.) Instead of the supine in u, an infinitive, a gerund or gerun- 
dive with ad, or a verbal noun in the ablative, and sometimes m the dative or 
accusative, may be used; as, Ardua imitatu, ceterum cognosci uUha. ^ al. Max. 
Illud autem fdcile ad credendum est. Cic. Opus proscription*: ■dignum . 1 lm. 
Aqua potui jucunda. Id.* Fdalfor ad intellectum atque^ imitationem. Quint. 
With dpus est the perfect passive participle is often used instead of the supine 
in u ; as, Opus est maturate, There is need of haste. Ct. § 243, K. 1. 

(b.) The construction with ad and the gerund; as, res facilis ad intelligen- 
dum or with sum and the infinitive active; as, facile est invenire, is used by 
the best writers after facilis, diffuilis, and jucundus. The ^ most common con- 
struction of dignus is with qui and the subjunctive, (§ 264, 9), but the poets 
and later prose writers have joined it with the infinitive passive. 

ADVEUBS. 
277. I. Adverbs modify or limit the meaning of verbs, 



§ ~3f 4 . i. ACiverus mouiiv ui uuui w*<= *■ 
adjectives, and sometimes of other adverbs j as, 



§ 277. SYNTAX. ADVERBS. 301 

BSne mdnes. You advise well. Ter. Fortissime urgentes, Most vigorously 
pressing on. Plin. Male narrando. Ter. Longe dissimilis. Cic. Valde bene. Id. 

Remark 1. Adverbs may also modify nouns, when they are used as adjec- 
tives or participles, and accordingly denote a quality, or when a participle is 
understood. They are also joined to adjective pronouns, when their adjective- 
character predominates; and sometimes limit the meaning of a preposition; as, 
Popidus late rex, for Idle regnans, — ruling far and wide. Virg. Nihil admddum, 
Nothing at all. Cic. Homo plane nosier, — entirely ours, that is, devoted to us. 
Id. Homerus plane orator. Id. Admddum puella. Liv. Late tyrannies. Hor. 
Grdvibus siiperne ictibus conflictdbantur, i. e. siiperne accideniibus. Tac. Multd- 
rum circa c'aitdlum, i. e. neighboring cities. Liv. 

Rem. 2. (a.) Most of the modifications made by adverbs may also be made 
by means of the various cases of nouns and adjectives, and many modifications 
may be made by these, for expressing which no adverbs are in use. In general 
those limitations which ai*e most common can be expressed by adverbs; as, 
sopienter for cum sdpientid ; hie for in hoc loco; bene for in bono mddo ; nunc for 
hoc tempore. — (6.) The following are examples of other parts of speech used 
adverbially, viz. Nihil, ' in no way'; nonnihil, ' in some measure ' ; quidquam, 
' at all ' ; dliquid, ' somewhat ' ; quid? ' why ? ' 

Rem. 3. A negative adverb, modifying another negative word, 
destroys the negation; as, 

Xon parert nohdt, He was not unwilling to obey. Nep. Eaud igndra mdli, 
Not ignorant of evil. Virg. Hand nihil est, It is something. Ter. Nee hoc ille 
non v'id't. And this he clearly perceived. Cic. So, nonnulli, some; nonnumquam, 
sometimes. Non, before a negative word, commonly heightens the affirmative 
sense, while it softens the expression; as, Homo non indoctus, i.e. homo sane 
doctus. Non semel, i. e. scejrius ; non igndro, non nescio, non sum nescius, I know 
very well. Qui mortem in nudis pdnit, non potest earn non timere, — must needs 
fear it. Cic. 

Rem. 4. When the subject and predicate of a proposition are both 
modified by negative words, and also when the predicate contains 
two negatives, the proposition is affirmative j as, 

Nemo non videt, Every one sees. Cic. Neque hcec non evenerunt, And this 
indeed took place. So, if both the antecedent and the predicate of a relative 
clause are negative, the proposition is affirmative ; as, Nemo est, qui nesciat, 
Every body knows. Cic. 

Rem. 5. (a.) But in the case of non followed by ne — quidem, the two nega- 
tives do not destroy each other; as, Non fugio ne hos quidem mores: and 
when the negative leading proposition has subordinate subdivisions with neque 
— neque, neve — neve, or non — non, these negative particles are equivalent to aid 
— aul; as, Non me carminibus vincet, nee Orpheus, nee Linus. Virg. Nemlnem, 
non re, non verlo, non vultu dinique offendi. Cic. Nullius rei neque prws, ne- 
que manceps /actus est. Nep. 

(b.) In a few passages, however, two negatives in Latin, as in Greek, 
strengthen the negation, and this exception appears to have been derived from 
the language of common life ; as, Jura te non ndcituram hdmini nemlni. Plaut. 

(c.) Nemo, nullus, nihil, and numquam have a different sense according as the 
non is placed before or after them ; as, Non nemo, some one ; nemo non, every 
one; nonnulli, some; nullus non, every; nonnihil, something; nihil non, every 
thing; non numquam, sometimes; numquam non, at all times. So, nusquam non, 
every where, but instead of nonnusquam, alicubi is used. 

Rem. 6. (a.) Non is sometimes omitted after non modo or non so- 
lum, when followed, in a subsequent clause, by ne quidem, if both 
clauses have the same verb, and if the verb is contained in the second 
clause ; as, 

26 



302 SYNTAX. ADVERBS. § 277. 

Mihi non mddo irasci, sed ne dolere quidem impune licet, which is equivalent to 
Mihi non mddo non irasci, sed ne dolere quidem impune licet, or Mihi non mddo 
irasci, sed dolere quidem impune non licet, Not only am I not permitted to be 
angry, but not even to grieve with impunity. Cic. Quum sendtui non solum ju- 
vdre rempublicam, sed ne lugere quidem liceret. Id. 

(b.) Non is also rarely omitted after non mddo when followed by sed or verum 
with etiam, and also after vix ; as, Qui non mddo ea futura timet, verum etiam 
fert, sustinetque prcesentia, Who not only does not fear.... Cic. Hcec genera 
virtutum non solum in moribus nostris, sed vix jam in libris repenuntur, These 
virtues are not only not found in life, but scarcely in books. Id. 

Eem. 7. Facile, in the sense of undoubtedly, clearly, is joined to superlatives, 
and words of similar import; as, Vir unus tdiius Graicice f aclle doctisslmus. Cic. 
Homo regidnis illius virtute facile princeps. Id. 

Rem. 8. Sentences are often united by means of an adverb which is repeated 
before each of the connected clauses; as, mddo — mddo, and nunc — nunc, (some- 
times — sometimes); as, Mddo hoc, mddo Mud elicit ; mddo hue, mddo illuc vdlat. 
Instead of the second mddo other particles of time are sometimes used; as, 
aliquando, nonnumquam, interdum, s&pius, turn or delude. — Partim — partim, ' part- 
ly — partly/ is sometimes used with a genitive or the preposition ex, in the 
sense of alii — alii, as a nominative in all the genders ; as, Quum partim e nobis 
ita timidi sunt, ut, etc., partim ita republicd dversi, ut, etc. — Simul — simul, l as 
well — as,' like nunc — nunc, is not found in Cicero. — Qua — qua is equivalent to 
et — et. — Turn — turn is used sometimes like mddo — mddo, sometimes like partim — 
partim ; as Erumpunt scepe vitia, dmicdrum turn in ipsos amicos, turn in dlienos. 
Cic. Hcec (beneficia) turn in universam rempublicam, turn in singfdos cives con- 
feruntur. Id. 

Rem. 9. Quum — turn is equivalent to et — et, except in assigning a greater 
importance to the second part: hence it must be translated by 'both — and 
especially,' ' not only — but also,' or ' but more particularly.' Sometimes ad- 
ditional weight is given to the second part by means of vero, cei te, etiam, qud- 
que, prcecipue, imprimis or maxime. This use of quum — turn seems to have had 
its origin in the use of quum Avith the subjunctive and often with the indica- 
tive in the protasis, followed by turn in the apodosis. When quum followed by 
turn serves to express the opposition between single words which have the 
same verb, it is to be regarded as a complete adverb; as, Fortuna quum in reli- 
quis rebus, turn prozcipue in bello plurimum 2>dtest. Sometimes the verb stands 
in the first part of the sentence; as, Quum omnis arrdgantia ddidsa est, turn ilia 
ingenii atque eldquentiai multo mdlestissima. Turn is sometimes repeated in the 
second part of the sentence ; as, Quern pater mdriens quum tutdribus et prdpin- 
quis, turn le gibus, turn aiquiidti magistrdiuum, turn judiciis vestris commenddtum 
piitatit. Cic. Sometimes the gradation is, quum — turn — turn vero. 

Rem. 10. Non mddo — sed etiam (or non solum, or non tantum — verum etiam) 
generally expresses the transition from less important to more important things, 
like the English 'not only — but (also)'. The transition from greater to smaller 
things is expressed by non mddo — sed, without the etiam, which we render in 
English by ' I will not say — but only,' and in Latin, too, we may say non dicam 
or non dico — sed ; as, Quid est enim minus non dlco ordtdiis, sed hdminis. 

Rem. 11. Tarn — quam expresses a comparison in degree; as, Nemo tam 
multa scripsit, quam multa sunt nostra. With superlatives they are rendered 
into English by ' the — the 'and comparatives; as, Veterndsus quam pi a rumnn 
bihit, tam maxbne sltit, The more lie drinks, the more he thirsts. Cato. Quam 
quisque pessime fecit, tam maxime tutus est. Sail. — Tam — quam quod maxime 
signifies, ' as much as possible.' — Non tam — quam signifies, ' not so much — as,' 
or ' less — than ' ; as, Prdvincia non tam grdtidsa et illustris, quam negdtidsa ac 
mdlesta. Cic. 

Rem. 12. Non minus — quam and non mdgis — quam are equivalent to a>.que — 
ac y 'as much as,' but in non magis — quam the greater weight is attached to the 
affirmative clause beginning with quam ; as, Alexander non diicis magis quam 



§ 277. SYNTAX. PREPOSITIONS. 303 

militis miinia exsequebdtur, Alexander performed as much the service of a sol- 
dier as that of a commander. In this connection plus frequently supplies the 
place of mdgis. 

(a.) Sic and ita are demonstrative adverbs corresponding to the relative ut. 
The restrictive meaning of ita (see § 191, E. 5.), is sometimes made more em- 
phatic by the addition of lumen. Tantus is used in a like restrictive sense; as, 
Frevsidii tantum est, ut ne murus quidem cingi qwssit, i. e. 'only so much.' Cees. 

(6.) Ut — ita or sic places sentences on an equality. They may sometimes 
be translated 'although — still,' or 'indeed — but.' — The adverb ut, 'as, 1 some- 
times takes the signification of the conjunction quod, 'because'; as, Atqueille, 
ut semper fuit dpertissimus, non se purgdvit. Cic. 

Eem. 13. In an enumeration, primum, deinde, turn, denique are commonly 
preferred to the numerals, prlmum, secundo, (for secundum is not often used), 
tertium, quartum, etc., unless the strict succession of the numbers is required. 
Sometimes turn is used once or twice instead of deinde, or the series is extended 
by accedit, hue adde, etc. Sometimes denique is followed by postre 'mo to form 
the conclusion of a series, but often denique without the other adverbs con- 
cludes a series, and is then equivalent to ' in short 'or 'in fine.' See Cic. Cat. 
1, 5. 

Rem. 14. Minus is often used for non; as, Nonnumquam ea, quce prcedicta 
sunt, minus eveniunt. Cic. — So, si minus — at, 'if not — yet;' and sin minus, 'but 
if not,' without a verb, after a preceding si; but with si non the verb is repeated. 
— The English 'how little' is in Latin quam non; and ' so little,' ita non ox 
ddeo non ; ^as, ddeo non curdbat, quid hdmines de se Idquerentur. 

Rem. 15. Nunc always expresses the time actually present, or the time to 
which a narrator transfers himself for the purpose of making his description 
livelier. Thus in speaking of the present time we may say, Nunc primum 
somnia me eludunt or eluserunt; but in a narrative we must say, Somnia tunc 
primum se dicebat elusisse. Compare the use of hie and Me. See § 207, R. 23, (c.) 

Rem. 16. The conjunction dum, ' while,' when added to negatives, becomes an 
adverb, signifying ' yet ' ; as, nondum, ' not yet ' ; necdum, ' and not yet ' ; nul- 
lusdum, 'no one yet'; nihildum, 'nothing yet.' Hence vixdum signifies 'scarcely 
yet ' ; as, Vixdum epistolam tuam legeram, quum ad me Curtius venit. Cic. — 
So, also, the conjunction nisi, by omitting its verb or uniting it with the lead- 
ing verb, acquires, after negatives and negative questions, the sense of the ad- 
verb ' except,' which is generally expressed by qjraiterquam or the preposition 
prater, and must be sofxpressed when no negative precedes. But the ex- 
pression 'except that' may be rendered either by nisi quod or pro&terquam 
quod. — After nihil dliud we may use either nisi or quam, nisi referring to nihil 
and quam to dliud. Hence nihil dliud nisi signifies ' nothing further,' or 'noth- 
ing more,' and nihil dliud quam, ' nothing else,' or ' no other thing but this.' 

Eem. 17. Ut, ' as,' in interposed clauses, such as ut opinor, ut puto, ut censeo, 
ut credo, is frequently omitted. Credo, u>ed in this manner often takes an ironi- 
cal sense. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

II. 1. See respecting the construction of prepositions with the accusative, 
§ 235; and with the ablative, § 241. See, also, for the different meanings of 
prepositions, § 195, and for their arrangement, § 279, 10. 

2. Two prepositions must not be joined in Latin, as they sometimes are in 
English, with the same noun; as, to speak for and against a law; or, I have 
learned this with, and, to some extent, from him. These sentences may be 
thus expres-od in Latin: pro l<ge it contra legem d'/cere; h&c cum e<>, partim 
etiam ah eo didici. Those dissyllabic prepositions only, which are sometimes 
used as adverbs, may follow another, without being joined with a case; as, 
(1'iod aut secundum ndturam esset, aut contra. Cic."6'is Pddum ultrdque. Liv. 
Caesar reverses the order, Intra extrdque rnunilidnes. B. Civ. 3, 72. 



304 SYNTAX. CONJUNCTIONS. § 278. 

3. When nouns mutually dependent upon a preposition are in ap- 
position, when they constitute an enumeration without a connective, 
and when connected by copulative, disjunctive, adversative, or com- 
parative conjunctions', the preposition is not repeated, unless such 
nouns are to be distinguished from each other, or are emphatic ; as, 

Quid dicam de thesauro omnium rerum, memSria? Hod appdret in bestiis, 
volucribus, nantlbus, agrestlbus, cicuribus, feris, ut se ipste diligant. Cic. 
Scepissime inter me et Scipionem de amicilid disserebdtur. Id. Quid fdceres si 
in aliquam domum villamve venisses? Id. Nihil per Iram aut cupidltatem 
actum est. Id. Themistocles non minus in rebus gerendis promptus guam exco- 
gitandis erat. Nep. 

4. The monosyllabic prepositions ab, ad, de, ex, and in are often used before 
each of two nouns connected by et, etc., especially if the qualities denoted by 
such nouns are to be considered separately. If the nouns are separated by 
et — et, nee — nee, etc., the prepositions must be repeated; as, Ut eorum et in 
bellicis et in civilibus officiis vigeat industria. Cic. — Inter is frequently repeated 
by Cicero after interesse, and other writers repeat it after other verbs also; as, 

Quid intersit inter populdrem — ctvem, et inter constantem, severum et gravem. Cic. 
Certdtum inter Ap. Claudium maxime ferunt et inter P. Decium. Liv. 

5. (a.) In poetry a preposition*is occasionally omitted with the first of two 
nouns, and put with the second only ; as, Quce nemdra, aut quos agor in specus, 
(Hor.) for, in quoz nemdra aut in quos specus agor. So, Hor. Ep. 2, 1,25. — 
(b.) An ellipsis of a preposition with the relative pronoun sometimes occurs, 
together with that of the verb belonging to the preceding demonstrative ; as, 
In eddem bplnione fui, qua rellqui omnes, (Cic), properly xn qua rellqui mines 
Juerunt. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

§ fBT'S, Copulative, disjunctive, and other coordinate con- 
junctions, connect similar constructions. 

Note 1. Clauses are similarly constructed, which are mutually independent, 
whose subjects and verbs are in the same case and mood, and. which have 
either no dependence or a similar dependence on another clause. 

Note 2. («,.) Words have a similar construction, when they stand in the 
same relation to some other word or words in the sentence. Hence, 

(b.) Conjunctions connect the same cases of nouns and pronouns, depend- 
ent, if the cases are oblique, upon the same government; the same number, 
case, and gender of adjectives, belonging to the same noun; the same mood of 
verbs, either independent, or alike dependent; adverbs qualifying the same 
verbs, adjectives, etc.; and prepositions on which depends the same noun or 
pronoun; as, Contidunt venti, fugiwitqae nubes, The winds subside, and the 
clouds disperse. Hor. Locum, quern et non cdquit sol, et tangit ros. Varr. Ludi 
decern per dies, facti sunt, neque res ulla prwtermissa est. Cic. Vides, ut altd 
stet nive candidum Soracte, nee jam sustineant dmes silvce hlborantes, geiuque 
fiundna constiterint dcuto. Hor. IntelUgitis et dnimum ei prasto fuisse, nee con- 
silium dPfuisse. Cic. Generi dnimantium omni est a ndturd tributum, ut se tuedtur, 
declinetque ea, quce nocitura videantur. Id. Aut nemo, aut Cato sapiens fuit. Id. 
Pulvis et umbra siimus. Hor. Si tu et Tullia vdletis, ego et Cicero rdlemus. Cic. 
Aggere j ado turribus^ye constitutis. Cses. Clams et honoratus vir, An illus- 
trious and honorable man. Id. Cossar Memos cohortatus, llberdliterque ordtione 
prosecutus. Cass. Pater tuus, quern colui et dllexi. Cic. Bdgce spectani in 
septentriunem et orientem sulem. Ca3S. Navlbus junctis, ratibus^we compluri- 
bus factis. Id. Lege, vel tdbellas redde. Plaut. Allobrdges trans Rhddanum vlcos 
possessionesgwe hdbebant. Cass. Quum triumphum egeris, censorque fueris, et 
obieris legdtus. Id. Quum ad oppidum accessisset, castrdque ibi poneret. Coes. 



§ 278. SYNTAX. — CONJUNCTIONS. 305 

Ades animo, et omitte timorem. Cic. Ea videre ac persplcere pdtestis. Id. 
Gravlter tt copiose dixisse dieitur. Id. Cum fratre an sine. Id. Cf. § 277, II. 2. 
Cm carmlna cordi, nunu'rosque intendtre nervis. Virg. Nee census, nee clarvm 
nomen dvdrum, sea probitas matfnos ingenium^we jacit. Ovid. PkildsbpM ne- 

gant quemquam virum boiium esse, 7iisi sapientem. Cic. Gloria virtutem tam- 
quam umbra sequiuir. Id. 

Remark 1. Copulative conjunctions may connect either single 
words and phrases or entire clauses ; the other conjunctions, whether 
coordinate or subordinate, connect clauses only. 

Rem. 2. Words thus connected are sometimes in different cases, though in 
the same construction; as, Mea et relpublicte interest. Cic. (See § 219.) Sive 
es Romae, s'tve in Epiro. Id. (See §§ 221 and 254. But see also § 221, Note.) In, 
Mettii deseendat judlds aures, et patris et nostras. Hor. See § 211, R. 3. In like 
manner, Hannibal non aliter vinei potuit, quam mora. 

Rem. 3. As the subjunctive is often used for the imperative, they may be 
connected by coordinate conjunctions; as, Disce nee invideas. Pers. 

Rem. 4. Where the purpose of the writer requires it, coordinate conjunc- 
tions sometimes connect independent propositions, whose verbs are in different 
moods ; as, Stiiporem hdmlnis, vel dlcam pecudis, videte. Cic. Nee satis scio, 
nee, si sciam, dlcere ausim. Liv. 

Rem. 5. Et is used after multi followed by another adjective, where in 
English 'and' is usually omitted; as, Multa, et magna} ar'bdres, Many large 
trees. In such cases et supplies the place of et is, introducing a more accurate 
description. See § 207, R. 26, (c.) 

Rem. 6. The conjunction is often omitted; as, (a.) When two single words, 
as comprehending the whole idea, are opposed to each other, as, velim, nolim, 
whether I would or not ; maxima minima, the greatest as well as the least ; 
prima postrema, from the first to the last; dignos indignos ddire ; Ire redire, to 
go to and fro. yEdiflciis omnibus publlcis prlvdtis, saeris profanis sic pepeveit. 
Cic. Nam gloriam, honor em, imperium bdnus ignavus aique sibi exoptant. Sail. 
C. 11. 

(6.) Et is very frequently omitted between the names of two colleagues; as, 
Consults declarati sunt Cn. Pompeius M. Crassus. P. Lentulo L. Tridrio, qv&s- 
turibus tirbdnis. Cic. Sometimes, also, when the two persons are not colleagues. 
It is also occasionally omitted between two words in the oratorical style; as, 
Aderant dm'tci, propinqui. Id.; also with verbs; as, Adsunt, queruntur Sici'di. Id. 
In good prose, if three or more siibstantives are joined, it is usual either wholly 
to omit the conjunction or to insert it between each. The following may serve 
asan example of both cases: Qui non modo Ciiriis, Cdtonibus, Pompeiis, ant/quis 
Mis, sed Ids recentibus, }f"uiis et D'tdiis et Cueliis eommemdrandis jdtebant. This 
is also the common practice with adjectives and verbs, and hence when et has 
not previously occurred in an enumeration of persons or things, we should not 
conclude the 'enumeration with et alii, et reliqui, et cetera, etc., but should make 
use of the adjectives alone, alii, reliqui, cetera, etc. But though et, ac and at- 
que are not used alone in the third or fourth place, yet the enclitic que fre- 
quently occurs in this position ; as, Precor ut ea res vobis pdeem, tranqu'dlita- 
tem, otium, concordiamque ajj'erat. Cic. Et may be supplied also when two 
protases introduced by si are joined together; where we say ' if — and it',' or 
1 if— and.' See an example in Cic. Off. 3, 9. 

(c.) An ellipsis of ut is supposed when ne precedes and et, alque, or que is 
used to continue the sentence, those copulative conjunctions in such case ob- 
taining the meaning of the adversative sed; as, Munere cozpit Porum, ne ultima 
expSriri perseverdret, dederelque se victori. Curt. 

Rem. 7. Copulative conjunctions are often used, before each of two or more 
connected words or clauses, in order to mark the connection more forcibly; as, 
Et pecunia persuddet, et gratia, et auctdritas duentis, et dignitas, et postremo 
aspectus. Quint. Hoc et tmpe, nee tdmen tutum. Cic. Ncque ndta est, et mterna 
est. Id. Et tibi et mihi vdluptdti fore. Id. Before clauses the disjunctive con~ 
26* 



306 SYNTAX. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. § 279. 

junctions are used in a similar manner ; as, Res ipsa aut invltdbit aut dehortdbi- 
tur. Id. So, also, nunc. ..nunc, simul...simul, partim...partim, qua.. .qua, turn... 
turn, quum...tum, are used before successive clauses. 

Rem. 8. To connect different names of the same person or thing, sive or seu, 
rather than aut or vel, is employed; as, Mars slve Mdvors. Cf. § 198, 2, (c.) 

Rem. 9. Instead of et and ut with the negatives nemo, nihil, nullus, and num~ 
quam, neque (or nee), and ne are used with the corresponding affirmative words 
quisquam, ullus, umquam, and usquam. But ' in order that no one ' is rendered 
in Latin by ne quis and not by ne quisquam, see § 207, R. 31, (a.); as, Hora 
quidem cedunl, et dies, et menses, et anni : nee prceteritum tempus umquam re- 
ve.rtit.ur. Cic. Sendtus decrevit, darent dperam consules, ne quid respubllca deirl- 
menti caperet. Cass. 

Rem. 10. The conjunctions igiiur, verum, verumtamen, sed, and sed tamen, in- 
dicate a return to the construction of the leading clause, when it has been 
disturbed by the insertion of another clause. These conjunctions, in such 
connection, are usually rendered by ' I say,' and sometimes in Latin inquam is 
so used. Nam also is occasionally employed in this way and very rarely 
itdque. 

Rem 11. Vero and autem are frequently omitted in adversative clauses, 
especially in short ones; as, Vincere scit Hannibal, victoria uti nescit. Liv. This 
omission* often occurs in describing a progress from smaller to greater things, 
as in Cic. Cat. 1, 1. And it is to be remarked that non in the second member 
of such adversative sentences is used without et or vero ; as, dliena vitia videt, 
sua non videt. But in unreal suppositions or ironical sentences, where the second 
member contains the truth, et non or ac non must be used, where we may sup- 
ply 'rather'; see § 198, 1, (c); as, Quasi nunc id dgdtur, — ac non hoc quaira- 
tur. Cic. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Respecting the construction of interjections with the nominative, see § 209, 
R. 13:— with the dative, § 228, 3:— with the accusative, § 238, 2:— and with 
the vocative, § 240. 

ARRANGEMENT. 
I. OF THE WORDS OF A PROPOSITION. 

§ Stf©. 1. In arranging the parts of a proposition in English, after 
connectives, are placed, first, the subject and the words which modify or limit 
it; next, the verb and its modifiers; then, the object of the verb; and finally, 
prepositions and the words depending upon them. This is called the logical 
or natural order. 

2. (a.) In Latin, either of the four principal parts of a sentence may be 
placed first, and there is great freedom in the arrangement of the rest,* but 
with this general restriction in prose, that words which are necessary for the 
complete expression of a thought should not be separated by the intervention of other 
words. In ordinary discourse, especially in historical Avriting, the following 
general rule for the arrangement of the parts of a sentence is for the most part 
observed. 

(b.) In a Latin sentence, after connectives, are placed, first, 
the subject and its modifiers ; then, the oblique cases and other 
words which depend upon or modify the verb ; and last of all, 
the verb. 



§ 279. SYNTAX. — ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 307 

(c.) Hence a Latin sentence regularly begins with the subject and ends 
with the principal verb of its predicate; as, Dumnorix gratia et largitibne dpud 
Sequanoa plunmum pott-rat. Ca?s. But the verb is often not placed at the end 
of a sentence, especially if the sentence is long, or if two many verbs would be 
thus brought together at the end. In the familiar style, also, the verb is often 
placed earlier in the sentence, and in explanatory clauses it is sometimes 
placed at the very beginning of the proposition, in which case a conjunction is 
generally added. 

(d.) It is also to be remarked, as a further modification of the general rule 
of arrangement, that, in sentences containing the expression of emotion, the 
word whose emphasis characterizes it as especially affecting the feelings, or as 
forming a contrast, is placed at the beginning; as, Cito drescit lacrima, prce- 
sertim in dlienis mdlis, Quickly dries the tear, especially when shed for others' 
woes. Cic. Sua vitia insipientes et suam culparn in senectutem conferunt. Id. 

(e.) If there be no emotive or pathetic word requiring prominence, the place 
at the end of the proposition is reserved for the significant word, that is, the 
word which is to be most strongly impressed upon the understanding or mem- 
ory; as, Gallia est omnis dlvlsa in partes tres. Cass. Quod ante id tempos accide- 
rat numquam. Id. Quod aliud iter hdberent nullum. Id. Qua} virtus ex prdvi- 
dendo est appelldta pmdentia. Cic. 

3. (a.) Connectives generally stand at the beginning of the clause 
which they introduce, and with the following this is their only posi- 
tion; viz. et, etenim, ac, at, atque, atqui, neque or nee, aut, vet, slve, 
sin, sed, nam, verum, and the relatives qudre, quocirca, and quamo- 
brem. 

(b.) Most other connectives generally stand in the first place, but when a 
particular word is peculiarly emphatic, this word with all that belongs to it 
stands first, and the conjunction follows it. Ut, even when there is no particu- 
lar emphasis, is commonly placed after vix, parne, and prope, and also after the 
negatives nullus, nemo, nihil, and the word tantum. In Cicero, ltdque stands 
first and igitur is commonly placed after the first, and sometimes after several 
words. 

(c.) Autem, enim, and vero (but), are placed after the first word of the clause, 
or after the second, when the first two belong together, or when one of them 
is the auxiliary verb sum; as, Ille enim revdedtus resistere cazpit. Cass. Ego 
vGro vellem, affuisses. Cic. Incrediblle est enim, quam sit, etc. Id. They rarely 
occur after several words; as, Cur non de integro autem datum. Id. The encli- 
tics que, ne, ve, are usually subjoined to the first word in a clause; but when a 
monosyllabic preposition stands at the beginning, they are often attached to its 
case; as, Romam Cdto demigrdvil, in foroque esse co?pil; and this is always the 
case with a, ad and oh. So, also, for the sake of euphony, Apud quosque. Cic. 

(<£.) Quidem and qudque, when belonging to single words, are always sub- 
joined to the emphatic word in a clause; as, Verbo ille reus erat, re quidem 
vero Opqnanicus. Cic. Me scilicet maxime, sed proxime ilium quoque j efellis- 
sem. Id. In negative sentences, ne precedes, and quidem follows, the emphatic 
word; as, Ne ad Cdtonem quidem prdvdcdbo. Cic. — Quidem is sometimes at- 
tracted from the word to which it properly belongs to a neighboring pronoun ; 
as, Tibique persuade, esse te quidem mild cdrissimum, sed multo fore cdridrem, 
si, etc., instead of ', te cdrissimum quidem mild esse. — Prepositions and conjunc- 
tions belonging to the word on which the emphasis rests are placed with it be- 
tween ne and quidem; as, Ne in funis quidem. Cic. Ne si duoitetur quidem. Id. 
Ne quum in Sicilid quidem fuit. Id.; and even Ne cujus rei argueretur quidem. — 
So, also, in Cicero, non nisi, 'only,' are separated; and the negative may even 
be contained in a verb. 

(e.) The preceding rules respecting the position of connectives are often 
violated by the poets, who place even the prepositive conjunctions after one or 
more words of a proposition; as, Et tu, pdtes nam, etc.. Hor. Vivos et roderet 



308 SYNTAX. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. § 279. 

ungues. Id. They even separate et from the word belonging to it ; as, Audlre 
et videor pios errdre per tucos. Id. So, Auctius atque dii melius fecere. Id. 
And they sometimes append que and ve neither to the first word, nor to their 
proper words in other connections ; as, Messallam terra dum sequiturque mdri, 
instead of terra mdrlque. Tib. In such arbitrary positions, however, these 
conjunctions are almost invariably joined to verbs only. 

4. When a word is repeated in the same clause, so that one is opposed to, 
or distinguished from, the other, they must stand together; as, Homines homi- 
nibus maxime utiles esse possunt. Cic. Equites alii alio dllapsi sunt. Liv. Legit- 
que virum vir. Virg. Manus manum lavat. Petr. So, also, the personal and 
possessive pronouns ; as, Sequere quo tua te ndtura ducit. Suum se negolium 
dgere dlcunt. 

5. Words used antithetically are also placed near each other; as, Dum ta- 
cent, clamant. Cic. Fragile corpus animus sempiternus movet. Id. 

6. Inquam and often aio, introducing a quotation, follow one or more of the 
words quoted; as, ' Non nosti quid pater, ,' inquit, l Chrgsippus dicaV Hor. 
' Quid,' aio, ' tua crimina prbdis ? ' Ovid. When a nominative is added to inquit, 
it usually follows this verb ; as, Mihi vero, inquit Cotta, videtur. Cic. — Dlcii 
and dixit are used like inquit only by the poets. 

7. (a.) The adjective may be placed before or after its noun according as 
one or the other is emphatic, the more emphatic word being placed before the 
other. When any thing is dependent on the adjective, it usually follows its 
noun. When a noun is limited by another noun, as well as by an adjective, 
the adjective usually precedes both; as, Vila officii prcecepta. Cic. Tuum erga 
dignitatem meam stadium. Id. 

{b.) Demonstratives, and the adjectives primus, medius, etc., when signifying 
the first part, the middle part, etc., (see § 205, E. 17), usually precede their 
nouns; as, Ea res. Caes. His ipsis verbis. Cic. Media nox. Cass. Reliqua 
JEgyptus. Cic. 

8. Monosyllables are usually prefixed to longer words with which they are 
connected; as, Vir cldrissimus. Cic. Di immortdles. Res innumerdbiles. Vis 
tempestdtis. Cass. 

9. (a.) When nouns are put in apposition, the one which explains or defines 
the other is generally put last, unless it is to be made emphatic ; as, Opes irrl- 
tamenta malbrum. Ovid. Hence names of honors or dignities, and every thing 
of the nature of a title, are commonly placed after the proper name, as explan- 
atory additions. Thus, especially, the names of changeable Eoman dignities; 
as, Cicero consul ; C. Curibni trlbu.no plebis ; but also permanent appellations; 
as, Ennius poeta; Plato philSsophus; Dionysius tyrannus; and such epithets as 
vir honestissimus ; homo doctissimus. But the hereditary title rex is frequently 
placed before the name; as, rex Deiotarus; and so the title Imperator after it 
became permanent. 

(b.) In the arrangement of the Roman names of persons, the pramdmen 
stands first, next the nomen or name of the gens, third the cognomen or name 
of the fdmilia, and last the agnomen ; as, Publius Cornelius Scipio Afncdnus. 
The pramomen is usually denoted by a letter. In the imperial times the nomen 
is often either omitted or follows as something subordinate. 

10. (a.) Oblique cases precede the words on which they depend, 
but they follow prepositions ; as, 

Populi Rbmdni laus est. Cic. Laudis dvidi, pecuniae liberdles. Sail. Cunctis 
esto benignus, nulli blandus, paucis fdmilidris, omnibus wquus. Sen. Monii- 
mentum rere pSrennius. Hor. Hanc tibi dono do. Ter. — Ad meridiem spectans. 
Cic. Extra periculum. Id. 

(b.) Genitives depending upon neuter adjectives are commonly placed last; 
as, Incerta fortunes. Liv. Nee tibi plus cordis, se<Lminus oris inest. Ovid. 



§ 279. SYNTAX. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 309 

Remark. This rule, so far especially as it relates to genitives, is in a great 
degree arbitrary, as the position of the governed and governing words depends 
on the idea to be expressed; thus, jnors patris tui, contrasts the death with the 
preceding life ; but, frdtris tui mors distinguishes this case of death from others. 
Hence we say, dnimi mdtus, dnimi morbus, corporis partes, terra} mdtus. — An ob- 
jective genitive usually follows the worl on which it depends; as, una signifi- 
tdtioiie llterarum, by means of a single notice by letters. — When several geni- 
tives are dependent on one noun, the subjective genitive commonly precedes 
and the objective genitive may either precede or follow the governing noun. — 
The genitive dependent on causa or gratia, ' on account of,' regularly precedes 
these ablatives; as, gloria causa mortem dbire ; emolumenti sui gratia. 

(c.) When a noun which is governed by a preposition, is modified by other 
words which precede it, the preposition usually stands before the words by 
which the noun is modified; as, A prima luce ad sextam horam. Liv. Ad dnimi 
vni httitiam. Cic. Ad bene beateque vivendum. Id. 

(d.) Sometimes, however, the preposition comes between its noun and an 
adjective or a genitive, by which the noun is modified; as, Nulla in re. Cic. 
Just Is de causis. Id. Siios inter aiqudles. Id. Hanc ob causam. Id. Mag no cum 
metu. Id. Qua in urbe. Id. Ed in re. Id. JEtdtis suai cum primis. Nep. — 
So, iilso, a conjunction may follow the preposition; as, Post vero Sullai victd- 
riam. 

(e.) Per, in adjurations, is often separated from its case by other words; as, 
Per ego te deos dro. Ter. — In the poets, other prepositions are sometimes sepa- 
rated in the same manner; as, Vulnera, quce circum plurima muros accepit pa- 
trios. Virg. 

(f.) Tenus and versus, and sometimes other prepositions, (cf. § 241, R. 1,) 
follow their cases, especially when joined with qui or hie. This occurs most 
frequently with the prepositions ante, contra, inter, and propter ; more rarely 
with circa, circum, penes, ultra and adversus; and with still less frequency 
with post, per, ad, and de ; as, quam ante, quern contra, quos inter, quern prop- 
ter, quos ad, quern ultra, nunc adversus, liunc post, quam circa. — The preceding 
prepositions, and more rarely others also, sometimes, especially in the poets 
and later prose writers, follow nouns and personal pronouns. In such case, if 
the noun be modified by an adjective or a genitive, the preposition sometimes 
stands between them, and sometimes follows both; as, Postes sub ipsos. Virg. 
Pipam dpud Euphrdtis. Tac. Maria omnia circum. Virg. And more rarely 
other words intervene ; as, His accensa super. Id. Vitiis nemo sine nascitur. 
Hor. 

11. Infinitives precede the verbs on which they depend; as, 

Jugurtha, ubi eos Africa decessisse ratus est, neque propter loci ndturam Cir- 
tam armis expugnare possit, mania circumdat. Sail. Servire mdgis quam impe- 
rare parati estis. Id. 

12. A word which has the same relation to several words, either precedes or 
follows them all ; as, Vir gravis et sapiens. Cic. Cldrus et hdndratus vir. Id. 
In scriptoribus legendis et imitandis, or In legendis imitandisque scriptorlbus; 
but not In legendis scriptoribus et imilandis. Quum respondere neque vtllet neque 
posset. Hdbentur et dicuntur tyranni. Amicitiam nee usu nee rdtione habent 
cognitam. 

13. Relatives are commonly placed after their antecedents, and 
as near to them as possible ; as, 

Qui sim, ex eo, quern ad te misi, cognosces. Sail. Literas ad te misi, per quas 
grdtias Ubi egi. Cic. 

14. Quisque is generally placed after se, suus, qui, ordinals and superlatives; 
as, Suos quisque debet tueri. Cic.^ Satis superque est stbi sudrum cuique rerum 
cura. Id. Severitm dnimadversionis infimo cuique grdlissima. Id. Maxime 
decet, quod est cujusque maxime suum. Id. Quisque very rarely begins a propo- 
sition. 



310 SYNTAX. ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES. § 280. 

15. (a.) An adverb is usually placed immediately before the word which it 
qualifies; but if the same word is modified by the oblique case of a noun, the 
latter commonly follows the adverb; as, Male parta male dlldbuntur. Cic. 
Nihil tarn asperum neque tarn difficile esse, quod non cupidissime facturi essent. 
Sail. — Imperium facile lis artibus retinetur, quibus initio partum est. Id. Sed 
maxime ddolescentium fdmilidritdtes appetebat. Id. Non tarn in bellis et in 
prceliis, quam in prdmissis et fide firmiorem. Cic. — (b.) When non belongs to a 
single word of the proposition, it always stands immediately before it ; as, non 
te reprehendo, sed fortunam. But if it belongs to the proposition generally, it 
stands before the verb, and particularly before the finite verb, if an infinitive 
depends on it; as, Cur tantopere te angas, intelligere sane non possum. Instead 
of non dico, nego is generally used; as, negdvit eum ddesse. — The negatives non, 
neque, nemo, nullus, when joined to general negative pronouns or adverbs, such as 
quisquam, ullus, umquam, always precede them though not always immediately; 
as, n'emini quidquam negdvit ; non memini me umquam te vidisse. § 207, R. 31. 

Note 1. In some phrases, custom has established a certain order, which must 
be observed and imitated; as, Civis Romdnus, populus Romdnus, jus civile, ces 
alienum, terra mdrique, Pontifex maximus, mdgister equitum, tribunus militum, 
tribum militum consuldri pdtestdte, Jupiter optimus maximus, via Appia ; ne quid 
respublica detrimenti capiat. Cic. The ablatives dpinione, spe, justo, solito, (see 
§ 256, R. 9), generally precede the comparative. 

Note 2. Exceptions to the foregoing principles are very numerous. These may arise 
(a) from emphasis ; (b) from poetic license ; and (c) from regard to the harmony of the 
sentence. The following general rule sometimes modifies nearly all the preceding. 

'V 16. The emphatic word is placed before the word or words- con- 
nected with it which are not emphatic. 

Note 3. .The last place is often an emphatic one, except for the verb. 
When the verb is neither first nor last in a proposition the word before it is 
emphatic. An adjective, when emphatic, commonly precedes its substantive; 
when not emphatic, it commonly follows it. But with the demonstrative pro- 
nouns the rule is reversed. 

Note 4. The principal poetical variation in the arrangement of words consists in the 
separation of the adjective from its noun, and in putting together words from different 
parts of a proposition. 

17. A sentence should not close like a hexameter verse, with a dactyl and 
spondee ; as, Esse videtur ; nor, in general, with a monosyllable. 

18. Hiatus should be avoided; that is, a word beginning with a vowel should 
not follow a word ending with a vowel. 

19. A concurrence of long words or long measures, — of short words or short 
measures, — of words beginning alike or ending alike, — should be avoided. 

II. OF THE ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES. 

§ S8®. A compound sentence, whose clauses are united as prot- 
asis and apodosis, or in which the leading clause is divided by the 
insertion of one or more subordinate clauses, is called a period. 

1. (a.) In the former kind of period the protasis must precede the apodosis; 
as, Quum Pausdnias semidnimis cle templo eldtus esset, confestim funniam efliavit, 
When Pausanias had been carried out of the temple but just alive, he imme- 
diately expired. In a period of the latter kind the verb of the principal propo- 
sition is placed at the end, and the subordinate clauses between the parts of 
the leading clause ; as, Pausanias, quum semidnimis de templo eldtus esset, con- 
festim animam efliavit, Puusanias, when he had been carried out of the temple 
but just alive, immediately expired. Nep. 

(6.) A sentence, such as Scipio exercitum in Africam trdjecit,ut Ilannibalem 
ex Italia dcduceret, is not periodic in its structure, but it becomes so when we 



§ 280. SYNTAX. CONNECTION OF CLAUSES. 311 

say, Sclpio, vl Hanmbalem ex Italia dcduceret, exercilum in Africam trdjecit. 
Periods in which the subordinate clause precedes with two conjunctions; as, 
Quum iyitur Romam venisset, statim imperdtdrem ddiit, are made still more 
strictly periodic by placing first the conjunction which belongs to the whole, 
and then inserting the subordinate proposition; as, Itaque, quum Romam ve- 
nisset, statim imperatorem adiit. 

2. (a.) If the verbs of the leading and dependent clauses have the same 
subject, or the same noun depending on them, thev are commonly formed into 
a period; as, Antigonus, quum adversus Seleucum Lysimdchumque dimicdret, in 
proelio occlsus est. Nep. Quern, ut barbdri incendium effugisse eminus vlderunt, 
telis missis interf ecerunt. Id. 

(6. ) So, also, when the noun which depends on the verb of the leading clause 
is the subject of'the dependent clause; as, L. Manlio, quum dictator fuisset, 
M. Pomponius, tribunus plebis, diem dixit. Cic. 

3. When obscurity would arise from separating the leading subject and 
verb by dependent words or clauses, they are often placed together at the be- 
ginning or end of the sentence; as, Lata? (sunt) deinde leges, non solum qua 
regni suspicione consulem absolverent, sed quce, ddeo in contrdrium verterent, utpopu- 
Idrem etiam fdcerent. Liv. The position of the leading verb is also often 
otherwise varied, from regard to emphasis, to avoid monotony, or to prevent 
it> meeting with the verb of the last dependent clause; butdauses, when so 
arranged, do not constitute a period. 

4. When one clause is interrupted by the introduction of another, the latter 
should be finished before the first is resumed. 

5. Clauses expressing a cause, a condition, a time, or a comparison, usually 
precede the clauses to which they relate. 

6. A short clause usually stands before, rather than after, a long one. 

III. OF THE CONNECTION OF CLAUSES. 

(1.) In connecting propositions, relatives, whether pronouns, pronominal ad- 
jectives, or adverbs, are often employed in order to avoid the too frequent re- 
currence of et, autem, and certain other conjunctions. Every relative may be 
used for this purpose instead of its corresponding demonstrative with et ; as, 
qui for et is, qudlis for et talis, quo for et eo, etc. They are used also before those 
conjunctions which are joined with et or autem at the beginning of a proposi- 
tion: as, si, nisi, ut, quum, etc. (see § 206, (14.); as, quod quum audlvissem, quod 
si fecis&em, quod quamvis non igndrassem, for et quum hoc, et si hoc, et quamvis 
hoc; or quum auttm hoc, etc.; and, often, also, where in English no conjunction 
i- used, and even before other relatives; as, quod qui fdcit, eum ego impium 
judico, i. e. et qui hoc fdcit, or, qui autem hoc fdcit. In the ablative with com- 
paratives the relative is often used as a connective; as, Oito, quo nemo turn 
erat prudentior, i. e. Cato, who was more prudent than all others. 

(2.) In propositions consisting of two members, the relative pronoun is joined 
grammatically either to the apodosis or to the protasis; with the former in, 
Qui, quum ex eo queen; retur, cur tarn diu vellet esse in vita, Nihil habeo, inquit, 
quod accusem st'nectutem. Cic. de Sen. 6. But is more frequent with the 
protasis or secondary clause ; as, A quo quum quasreretur, quid maxime expe- 
diret, respondit. Cic. Off. 2,. 25. When it is thus joined with the protasis, the 
nominative of the demonstrative is supplied with the apodosis from another 
case of the relative in the protasis, as, in the preceding passage, from the abla- 
tive. But for the sake of emphasis the demonstrative may be expressed, and 
frequently, also, for the sake of clearness; as, Qui mos quum a posteridribusnon 
■>i't„s. Arcestlas eum revdedvit. Cic.de Fin. 2,1. The accusative is 
sometimes to be supplied; as, Qui (Hiirdclitus) quuniaui iatelligi nvluit, d/nitta- 
mus. Cic. X. D. 3, 14. When the demonstrative precedes, and is followed by 
a proposition consisting of two members, the lelative is attached to the prota- 



312 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. § 281. 

sis, which is placed first, and not to the leading clause or apodosis ; as, Ea 
sudsi Pompeio, quibus ille si paruisset, Ccesar tantas opes, quantas nunc hdbet, 
non hdberet. Cic. Fam. 6, 6. Noli adversus eos me velle ducere, cum quibus ne 
contra te anna ferrem, Itdliam rellgui. Nep. Att. 4. 

(3.) Where in English we use 'however' with the relative; as, He promised 
me many things, which, however, he did not perform, the Latins made use 
of the demonstrative with sed or verum, or the relative alone implying the ad- 
versative conjunction; as, multa mihi promlsit, sed ea non prcestitit, or, quse 
non pj'cestitit, but not quce autem or qua vero. Qui autem and qui vero are used 
however in protases, where the relative retains its relative meaning, and there 
is a corresponding demonstrative in the apodosis ; as, Qui autem omnia bdna a 
se ipsis petunt, iis nihil malum videri potest, quod naturce necessitas afferat. Cic. 
de Sen. 2. 

(4.) In double relative clauses, especially where the cases are different, 
Cicero frequently for the second relative clause substitutes the demonstrative; 
as, Sed ipslus in mente insidebat species pulchritudinis eodrnia quondam, quam in- 
tuens, in eaque defixus, ad, etc. for et in qua. Cic. Orat. 2. And sometimes 
even when the cases are the same ; as, Quern Phliuntem venisse ferunt, eumque 
cum Leonte disseruisse qucedam. Cic. Tusc. 5, 3; where et alone would have 
been sufficient. 

(5.) From this tendency to connect sentences by relatives arose the use of 
quod before certain conjunctions merely as a copulative. See § 206, (14.) 

(6.) Neque or nee is much used by Latin writers instead of et and a nega- 
tion, and may be so used in all cases except when the negative beloirgs to one 
particular word; see § 278, E. 9. Neque or nee is added to enim, vero, and ta- 
men, where we cannot use ' and.' To these negative expressions a second 
negative is often joined, in which case neque enim non is equivalent to nam; 
non vero non, to atque etiam, a stronger et ; nee tdmen non, to attdmen. 

ANALYSIS. 

§ S81. -I. 1. The analysis of a complex or a compound sen- 
tence consists in dividing it into its several component propositions, 
and pointing out their relation to each other. 

2. In resolving a sentence into its component clauses, the participial con- 
structions equivalent to clauses should be mentioned, and ellipses be supplied. 
See § 203, 4; § 274, 3; and § 257. 

3. In a continued discourse the connection and relation of the successive 
sentences also should be specified. 

Rules for tlie Analysis of Complex and Compound Sentences. 

(1.) State whether the sentence is complex or compound. § 201, 11, 12. 

(2,) If complex, (1) specify the principal and subordinate clauses. (2) Speci- 
fy the class to which the subordinate proposition belongs, (§ 201, 7), and (3), its 
connective, and the class to which such connective belongs, (§ 201, 8 and 9.) 

(3.) If compound, specify the principal propositions, with their subordinates, 
if any they have, as in the case of complex sentences. 

II. The analysis of a proposition or simple sentence consists in distinguish- 
ing the subject from the predicate, and, in case either of them be compound, 
in pointing out the simple subjects or predicates of which it is composed, and, 
if complex, in specifying the several modifiers, whether of the essential or sub- 
ordinate parts. 






§ 281. SYNTAX. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 313 

Rules for the Analysis of a Simple Sentence. 

1. Divide it into two parts — the subject and the predicate, § 201, 1 — 3. 
If these are simple, the analysis is complete, but if either is compound : — 

2. Specify the simple siibjects or predicates of which the compound con- 
sists. — If either is complex : — 

3. Point out the grammatical subject, and the words, phrases , etc. directly 
modifying it. 

4. Point out the words, phrases, etc., which modify the direct modifiers of 
the grammatical subject, and those which modify them, and so on succes- 
sively, until the relation of each of the words composing the logical subject is 
specified. 

5. Point out the grammatical predicate, and the words, phrases, etc., directly 
modifying it. 

6. Point out the words, phrases, etc., which modify the direct modifiers of 
the grammatical predicate, and those which modify them, and so on succes- 
sively, until the relation of each of the words composing the logical predicate 
is specified. 

PARSING. 

III. Parsing consists in resolving a proposition into the parts of 
speech of which it is composed, tracing the derivation of each word, 
and giving the rules of formation and construction applicable to it. 

Rules for Parsing. 

1. Name the part of speech to which each word belongs, including the sub- 
division in which it is found. 

2. If it is an inflected word : — 

(1.) Name its root or crude form, and decline, compare, or conjugate it. 

(2.) If it is a noun or pronoun, tell its gender, number and case: — if in the 
nominative or in the accusative with the infinitive, tell its vei-b: — if in an ob- 
lique case depending on some other word, tell the word on which its case 
depends. 

(3.) If it is an adjective, adjective-pronoun, or participle, tell the word which 
it modifies. 

(4.) If it is a finite verb or an infinitive with the accusative, tell its voice, 
mood, tense, number, person, and subject. 

3. If it is a conjunction, tell its class and what it connects. 

4. If it is a preposition, tell the words whose relation is expressed by it. 

5. If it is an adverb, tell its class and what it qualifies. 

6. Prove the correctness of each step of the process by quoting the definition 
or rule of formation or construction on which it depends. 

Note. The words constituting a proposition are most conveniently parsed in 
that order in which they are arranged in analysis. 

Examples of Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Equus currit, The horse runs. 

Analysis. This is a simple sentence: its subject is equus, its predicate is 
currit, both of which are simple. See § 201, 1-3 ; § 202, 2 ; and § 203, 2. 

27 



314 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. § 281. 

Parsing. Equus is a common noun, § 26, 1 and 3; of the 2d decl., § 38; 
masc. gender, § 28, 1; third person, § 35, 2; its root is equ-, § 40, 10; decline it, 
§ 46; it is in the nominative case, singular number, § 35, 1, (b.); the subject 
of currit, § 209, (a.) — Currit is a neuter verb, § 141, II.; of the 3d conjugation, 
§ 149, 2, from curro ; its principal parts are curro, cucurri, cursum, currere, 
§ 151, 4; it is from the first root curr- ; give the formations of that root, § 151, 1 ; 
it is in the active voice, § 142, 1 ; indicative mood, § 143, 1 ; present tense, § 145, 
I.; third person, § 147; singular number, § 146; agreeing with its subject-nomi- 
native equus, § 209, (b.) 

Note. The questions to be asked in parsing equus are such as these, Why is 
equus a noun f Why a common noun ? Why of the second declension V Why 
masculine ? etc. — In parsing currit, the questions are, Why is currit a verb 1 
Why a neuter verb? Why of the third conjugation? Which are the principal 
parts of a verb? Of what does the first root of a verb consist? What parts 
of a verb are derived from the first root ? etc. The answer in each case may 
be found by consulting the etymological rules and definitions. 

2. Scevius ventis agitatur ingens plnus, The great pine is more 
violently shaken by the winds. Hor. 

Analysis . This also is a simple sentence: — its subject is ingens pinus, its 
predicate scevius ventis agitatur; both of which are complex, § 201, 10, § 202, 6, 
and § 203, 5. 

The grammatical subject is pinus, the pine; this is modified by inqens, great, 
§ 201, 2, § 202, 2, and § 202, 6, (3.) 

The grammatical predicate is agitatur, is shaken; this is modified by two 
independent modifiers, savius, more violently, and ventis, by the winds, \ 203, 
II. 3, Kern., § 203, I. 1, (2), and (3.) 

P ar sing . Plnus is a common noun, § 26, 1 and 3 ; of the 2d and 4th de- 
clensions, { 88 and § 99; feminine gender, § 29, 2; 3d person, § 35, 2; from the 
root pin-, \ 40, 10; (decline it both in the 2d and 4th declensions); — it is found 
in the singular number, § 35, 1, and the nominative case, the subject of agita- 
tur, § 209, (a.) 

Ingens is a qualifying adjective of quantity, § 104, 4, and § 205, N. 1; of the 
3d decl., § 105, 1, and § 38; of one termination, § 108, and § 111; from the root 
ingent-, § 40, 10; (decline it like praisens, § 111, but with only i in the ablative, 
§ 113, Exc. 3,) ; — it is found in the singular number, feminine" gender, § 26, R. 4; 
and nominative case, agreeing with its noun plnus, § 205. 

Agitatur is an active frequentative verb, § 141, I., and § 187, II. 1; of the 
1st conjugation, § 149, 2 ; from the first root of its primitive ago, § 187, II. 1, (b.) ; 
I name its principal parts in both voices, see § 151, 4; and give the conjuga- 
tion of the passive voice, indicative mood, present tense, see §156,); — it is 
found in the singular number, § 146 ; third person, § 147 ; agreeing with its 
subject-nominative plnus, § 209, (b.) 

tiaivius is a derivative adverb of manner, § 190, 2-4; in the comparative de- 
gree, from the positive sceve or surlier, which is derived from the adjective 
seems, § 194, 1 and 2, and § 192, II. 1, and Exc. 1 and 2; modifying the verb 
agitatur, by expressing its degree, § 277. 

Ventis is a common noun, § 26, 1 and 3; of the 2d declension, § 38; masculine 
gender, § 46; from the root vent-, § 40, 10; (decline it); — it is found in the 
plural number, § 35, 1 ; ablative case, modifying agitatur by denoting its means 
or instrument, § 247. 

3. Mithridates, duarum et viginli gentium rex, totldem Unguis jura 
dixit, Mithridates, king of twenty-two nations, pronounced judicial 
decisions in as many languages. Plin. 

Analysis. This also is a simple sentence; its subject is Mithridates, dud- 
rum et vlyinti gentium rex, its predicate is tulklem Unguis jura dixit, both of 
winch are complex, § 201, 10, § 202, 6, and § 203, 5. 



§ 281. SYNTAX. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 315 

The grammatical subject is Mithridates; this is modified directly by rex, 
§ 202, I. (1.) 

Rex is limited by gentium, § 202, I. 1, (2.) 

Gentium is limited' bv the compound addition duarum and viginti connected 
coordinately by et, § 202, III. 3. 

The grammatical predicate is dixit ; this is limited by jura and Unguis, the 
former a simple, the latter a complex addition, as it is modified by totidem, 
$ 203, I. 1, (2.) and II. 1. 

Parsing . Mithridates is a proper noun, § 26, 2; of the third declension, 
§ 38; masculine gender, § 28, 1; from the root Mithriddt-, §40, 10; genitive 
Mtthriddtis, § 73, 1; (decline it in the singular number only, § 95, (a.); — it is 
found in the nominative case, the subject of dixit, § 209, (a.) 

Bex is a common noun — third declension, § 38; masculine gender, § 28, 1; 
from the root reg-, § 40, 10; genitive regis, § 78, 2; (decline it); — it is found in 
the singular number — the nominative case, in apposition to Mithridates, § 204. 

Gentium is a common noun from gens — third declension — feminine gender, 
§ 62; from the root gent-, § 56, I, R. 1; genitive gentis, § 77, 2 and (2.); (de- 
cline it); — it is found in the plural number — genitive case, § 83, II. 3; limiting 
rex subjectively, § 211 and R. 2. 

Duarum is a numeral adjective, § 104, 5; of the cardinal kind, § 117; from 
duo, duai, duo ; from the root du- ; (decline it, § 118, 1,); — it is found in the 
plural number, § 118, 2; feminine gender, genitive case, § 26, R. 4; agreeing 
"with its noun gentium, § 205. 

Et is a copulative conjunction, § 198, 1, connecting duarum and viginti, § 278. 

Viginti is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, indeclinable, § 118, 1; 
limiting gentium, § 205. 

Dixit is an active verb, § 141, I.; of the third conjugation, § 149, 2; from 
dico, (give the principal parts in the active voice, and its first, second, and 
third roots, § 150, 4, and § 171, 1;) it is formed from the second root dix-, (give 
the formations of the second root); — it is found in the active voice, § 14i, 1; 
indicative mood, § 143, 1; perfect indefinite tense, § 145, IV. and Rem.; sin- 
gular number, third person, agreeing with Mithridates, § 209, (b.) 

Jura is a common noun, of the third declension, from jus, root jur-, § 56, I. 
R. 1, . genitive juris, § 76, Exc. 3 ; neuter gender, § 66 ; (decline it) ; — it is found 
in the plural number, accusative case, § 40, 8 ; the object of dixit, § 229. 

Unguis is a common noun, of the first declension, feminine gender, from 
lingua, root lingu-, (decline it); — found in the plural number, ablative case, 
after dixit. § 247. 

Tutidem is a demonstrative pronominal adjective, § 139, 5, (2.) and (3.); in- 
declinable, § 115, 4; it is in the ablative plural, feminine gender, limiting Un- 
guis, § 205. 

4. PdusaniaSj quum semidnimis de templo elatus esset, confestim dni- 
mam efflavit. Xep. Paus. 4. 

Analysis. This is a complex sentence, § 201, 11; consisting of two mem- 
bers, which are so arranged as to constitute a period, § 280, 1. 

The principal proposition is, Pausdnias confestim dnimam efflavit, § 201, 5. 
The subordinate proposition is, quum (is) semidnimis de templo eldtus esstt, 
§ 201, 6. 

The leading proposition has a simple subject, Pausdnias, § 202, 2, and a 
complex predicate, confestim dnimam efflavit, § 203, 3 ; in which efflavit is the 
grammatical predicate, § 203, 2; which is modified bv confestim and aidmum, 
<> 203, 1. 1, (2.) and (3.), and II. R. 2., and also by the adverbial clause quum 
semidnimis, etc. § 201, 6 and 7, and § 203, I. 3. 

The subordinate proposition, which is connected to the leading clause by 
the subordinate conjunction quum, § 201, 9, has a simple subject, viz. is under- 
stood, and a complex predicate, semidnimis, de templo elatus esset, § 203, 3.— 
The grammatical predicate is elitus esset, § 203, 2; which is modified by semid- 
ruuu.i, § 203, 1. 1, (1.), and de templo, § 203, I. 2, and II. Rem. 2. 



316 SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. §281. 

Parsing . Pausdnias, a Greek proper noun, § 26, 2; — 1st decl., §§ 41 and 
44; masc. gender, § 28, 1; root Pausdni- ; found in sing, num., nom. case, the 
subject of efflavit, § 209, (a.) 

Confesiim, an adv. of time § 190, 3 ; limiting efflavit, § 277. 

Animam is a com. noun of 1st decl., fern, gender, § 41; from anima, root 
dnim~; (decline it); — it is found in the sing, num., ace. case, the object of 
efflavit, § 229. 

Efflavit, an act. verb, 1st conj., from efflo, compounded of ex and flo, $ 196, 6; 
(give the principal parts in the act. voice and the three roots); — it is formed 
from the second root; (give the formations of that root); in the active voice, 
ind. mood, perfect indefinite tense, sing, num., 3d pers., agreeing with Pausa- 
nias, $ 209, (b.) 

Quum is a temporal conjunction, § 198, 10 ; connecting the dependent to the 
principal clause, § 278. 

Semianimis is a predicate adj., of the 3d decl., of two terminations, § 109; 
(decline it); — it is in the sing, num., masc. gend., nom. case, agreeing Avith is 
understood, § 210, K. 1, (a.) 

De is a preposition, expressing the relation between elatus esset and lemplo, 
§ 195. 

Templo is a com. noun, 2d decl., neut. gend., from templum, root tempi-; (de- 
cline it) ; — in the sing, num., abl. case, after de, § 241. 

Elatus esset is an irregular active verb, of the third conjugation, § 179 ; from 
effero, compounded of ex and fero, § 196, 6; (see fero and compounds, § 172); 
(give the principal parts in both voices, and the 1st and 3d roots); — it is formed 
from the third root, elat-, (give the formations of that root in the passive voice) ; 
in the subjunctive mood, pluperfect tense, § 145, V. ; sing, num., third person, 
agreeing with is understood referring to Pausanias, § 209, (b.) 

5. Romana pubes, sedato tandem pavore, postquam ex tarn turbido 
die serena et tranquilla lux rediit, ubi vacuam sedem regiam vldit, etsi 
satis credebat patribus, qui proximi steterant, subllmem raptum pro- 
cella; tamen, velut orbltatis metu icta, moestum aliquamdiu silentium 
obtinuit. Liv. 1, 16. 

Analysis. This is a complex sentence, whose clauses constitute a period, 
§ 280. It is composed of the following members or clauses : — 

1. Romana pubes [tamen] moestum allquamdiu silentium obtinuit. This is the 
leading clause. The following are dependent clauses. 

2. velut orbitdtis metu icta, 

3. sedato tandem pavore, 

4. postquam ex tarn turbido die serena et tranquilla lux rediit, 

5. ubi vacuam sedem regiam vldit, 

6. etsi satis credebat patribus, 

7. qui proximi steterant, 

8. subllmem raptum prdcelld. 

Note 1. In the preceding clauses the predicates are printed in Italics. 

Note 2. The connective of the 1st clause, is the adversative tamen, which 
is inserted on account of etsi intervening between the principal subject and 
predicate. The connective of the 2d clause is velut, of the 4th postquam, of the 
5th ubi, of the 6th etsi, followed by a clause constituting the protasis, and of 
the 7th qui. The 3d and 8th clauses have no connectives. 

(1.) The grammatical subject of the leading clause is pubes, which is limited 
by Romana. — The grammatical predicate is obtinuit, which is limited by dli- 
quamdiu and silentium, and also either directly or indirectly by all the depend- 
ent clauses. Silentium is itself modified by moestum. 

The second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth clauses are used adverbially to 
denote the time and other circumstances modifying the principal predicate 
silentium obtinuit, § 201, 7. 



§ 281. SYNTAX. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 317 

(2.) The second is a participial clause, equivalent to velut ( ea scil. pubes ) 
orbitdtis metu icta esset, § 274, 3, (a.) 

(3.) The third clause is also participial, and is equivalent to quum tandem 
pa cor seddtus esset, § 257, R. 1; and hence pdcore represents the subject, and 
seddto tandem the predicate — the former being simple, the latter complex. 

(4.) The grammatical subject of the 4th clause, which is connected to the 
leading clause by postquam, § 201, 9, is lux, which is modified by serena and 
tranqudla. — The grammatical predicate is rediit, Avhich is modified by postquam 
and ex tarn turbido die, § 203, I. 1, (3.), and II. 1. 

(5.) The grammatical subject of the fifth clause is ea understood. — The 
grammatical predicate is vidit, which is modified by ubi and vdcuam sedem 
regiam, § 203, I. 1, (3.) and II. 1. 

(6.) The grammatical subject of the sixth clause also is ea. Its grammati- 
cal predicate is crcdebat, which is modified by satis and patribus, § 203, I. (2.) 
and (3.), and by the 8th clause, II. 3. 

(7.) The grammatical subject of the seventh clause is qui. Its grammatical 
predicate is steterant, which is modified by qiroximi, § 203, I. (1.) It is an ad- 
jective clause, modifying patribus, § 201, 7 and 9. 

(8.) The grammatical subject of the eighth clause, which has no connective, 
4 20*, Rem., is eum, i. e. Romulum, understood. Its grammatical predicate is 
raptum (esse), which is modified by subllmem and prdcelld. 

P a r sing. Romdna is a patrial adjective, § 104, 10, derived from Roma, 
§ 128, 6, {a.) and (e.); of the 1st and 2d declensions, § 105, 2; fern, gender, 
sing, number, nom. case, agreeing with pubes, § 205. 

Pubes, a collective noun, § 26, 4; 3d decl., fem. gender, § 62; from the root 
pub-, § 56, I. R. 6; genitive pubis, § 73, 1; (decline it); — found in the nom. 
sing., the subject of obtinuit, § 209, (a.) 

Tumen, an adversative conjunction, § 198, 9, relating to etsi in the 6th clause. 

Moistum, a qualifying adj., § 205, N. 1; of the 1st and 2d declensions, neut. 
gender, sing, num., ace. case, agreeing with silentium. 

Aliquamdiu, an adverb of time, § 191, II. ; compounded of aliquis and diu, 
§ 193, 6 ; and limiting obtinuit, § 277. 

Silentium, a com. noun, 2d decl., neut. gender, § 46; sing, number, ace. case, 
the object of obtinuit, § 229. 

Obtinuit, an active verb, of the 2d conj., § 149, 2; from obtineo, compounded 
of ob and teneo, see § 168 ; (give the principal parts in the act. voice, and the 
formations of the 2d root, § 157 at the end); — found in the active voice, ind. 
mood, perf. indef. tense, sing, num., 3d person, agreeing with qmbes, § 209, (b.) 

Velut for velut si, an adverb, compounded of vel and ut, §193, 10; modifying 
ict't, and obttnuisset understood, (as they would have done if, etc.) 

Orbitdtis, an abstract noun, § 26, 5; from the primitive orbus, § 101, 1 and 2; 
3d decl., fem. gender, § 62; from the root orbitdt-, § 56, I., and R. 1; (decline 
it); — found in the sing, num., subjective gen. case, limiting metu, § 211. 

Mrtu, an abstract ncun, 4th decl., masc. gen., § 87; sing, num., abl. case, 
§ 247. 

/eta, a perf. part, pass., from the active verb ico, of the 3d conj. (give the 
principal parts in both voices, and decline the participle); — found in the fem. 
gen., sing, num., nom. case, agreeing with pulies, § 205. 

Seddto, a perfect pass. part, from the active verb sedo, of the 1st conj., § 149, 
2; (give the principal parts in both voices, § 151, 4; and decline it, § 105, 
R. 2.); — found in the masc. gender, sing, num., abl. case, agreeing with, pd- 
vore, § 205. 

Tandem, an adverb of time, § 191, II.; modifying seddto, § 277. 

Pdvore, an abstract noun, § 26, 5, and § 102, 1; (from pdveo), 3d decl., masc. 
gen., § 58; root pdvor, § 56, II., and § 70, (decline it); — found in the sing, 
number, abl. case, absolute with seddto, § 257. 

Postquam, an adverb of time, compounded of post and quam, \ 193, 10; mod- 
ifying rediit, and connecting the 1st and 4th clauses, § 201, 9. 
" Ex, a preposition, § 195, R. 2. 

Tarn, an adverb of degree, § 191, R. 2; modifying turbido, § 277. 
27* 



318 SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. § 281. 

Turbido, an adjective, agreeing with die. 

Die, a common noun, 5th decl., masc. gender, $ 90, Exc. 1. ; sing, number, 
abl. case, after the prep, ex, § 241. 

Serena, an adj., 1st and 2d decls., fern, gen., sing, num., nom. case, agreeing 
with lux, § 205. 

El, a copulative conjunction, § 198, 1; connecting serena and tranquilla, 
§ 278. 

Tranquilla, like serena. 

Lux, a common noun, 3d decl., fern, gen., § 62; from the root luc-, § 56, L, 
and R. 2 ; genitive lads, § 78, 2. 

Rediit, an irregular neuter verb, of the 4th conj., § 176; from redeo, com- 
pounded of eo, § 182, and the inseparable prep, red, § 196, (b.), 3; (give its prin- 
cipal parts); — found in the ind. mood., perf. indef. tense, sing, num., 3d pers., 
agreeing" with lux, § 209, (J.) 

Ubi, an adverb of time, and like postquam, a connective, § 201, 9 ; and modi- 
fying vldit, § 277. 

Vacuam, an adj., qualifying sedem. 

Sedem, a common noun, 3d decl., fern, gen., § 62; from the root sed-, § 56, I., 
R. 6; genitive sedis, § 73, 1; (decline it); — found in the sing, num., ace. case, 
the object of the transitive verb vldit, § 229. 

Reyiam, a denominative adj., § 128, L, 2, (a.); from the primitive rex, agree- 
ing with sedem. 

Vldit, an active verb, of the 2d conj., (give its principal parts in the active 
voice, and the formations of the 2d root) ; found in the active voice, ind. mood, 
perf. indef. tense, sing, num., 3d pers., agreeing with ea, i. e. pubes, under- 
stood. 

Etsi, a concessive conjunction, § 198, 4; corresponding to the correlative ad- 
versative conj. tauten, § 198, 4, R. and 9. 

Satis, an adverb of degree, § 191, III., and R. 2; modifying credebat, § 277. 

Credebat, an act. verb, § 141,1.; 3d conj., (give the principal parts in the 
active voice and the formations of the 1st root) ; — found in the act. voice, ind. 
mood, imperfect tense, sing, num., 3d person, agreeing with ea, scil. pubes, 
understood. 

Patnbus, a common noun, § 26, 3; 3d decl., from the root patr-, § 56, II., 
R. 3; gen. patris, § 71; masc. gender, § 28, 1; plur. num., dat. case, depending 
on ci'edi'bat, § 223, R. 2. 

Qui, the subject of the 7th clause, is a relative pronoun, § 136; masc. 
gender, plur. num., agreeing with its antecedent patribus, § 206, R. 19, (a.); 
and is nominative to steterant, § 209, (a.) 

Proxlmi, an adj. of the superlative degree, § 126, 1, (compare it); of the 1st 
and 2d decls., masc. gen., plur. num., nom. case, agreeing with qui, § 205, § 210, 
R. 1, (a.) andR. 3, (2.) 

Steterant, a neuter verb, 1st conj., irregular in its 2d root, § 165; (give its 
principal parts, and the formations of the 2d root); — found in the act. voice, 
ind. mood, plup. tense, § 145, V.; 3d person plural, agreeing with its subject 
qui, § 209, (6.) 

Sublimem, an adj., of the 3d decl., and two terminations, § 109; masc. gen., 
sing, num., ace. case, agreeing with eum, (i. e. Romidum,) understood, and 
modifying also raptum esse, § 205, R. 15. 

Raptum (esse), an act. verb, 3d conj.; (give the principal parts in both 
voices and the formations of the 3d root in tbe passive voice) — found in the 
pass, voice, inf. mood, perf. tense; but, following the imperfect, it has the 
meaning of a pluperfect, § 268, 2, and § 145, V. ; depending on credebat, § 272. 

Prdcella, a com. noun, 1st decl., fern, gen., sing, num., abl. case, § 247. 



§ 282, 283. prosody. — quantity — general rules. 319 



PROSODY. 

§ 283. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, and the 
laws of versification. 

QUANTITY. 

1. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time occupied in 
pronouncing it. Cf. § 13. 

2. A syllable is either short, long, or common. 

(a.) The time occupied in pronouncing a short syllable is called a mora or 
time. 

(b.) A long syllable requires two morce or double the time occu- 
pied in pronouncing a, short one ; as, amare. 

(c.) A common syllable is one which, in poetry, may be made 
either long or short ; as the middle syllable of tenebrce. 

3. The quantity of a syllable is either natural or accidental; — 
natural, when it depends on the nature of its vowel; accidental, when 
it depends on its position. 

Thus the e in resisto is short by nature ; while in rcstiti it is long by its posi- 
tion, since it is followed by two consonants : § 283, IV. On the contrary, the 
c in diduco is naturally long, but in dSerro it is made short by being placed, be- 
fore a vowel: § 2fe3, L 

4. The quantity of syllables is determined either by certain estab- 
lished rules, or by the authority of the poets. 

Thus it is poetic usage alone that determines the quantity of the first sylla- 
bles of the following words, viz. mater, f rater, prams, dlco, duco ; pater, dvus, 
cddo, tndneo, gravis, etc. ; and hence the quantity of such syllables can be as- 
certained by practice only or by consulting the gradus or lexicon. 

5. The rules of quantity are either general or special. The for- 
mer apply alike to all the syllables of a word, the latter to particular 
syllables. 

GEXERAL RULES. 

§ 283. I. (a.) A vowel before another vowel, or a diph- 
thong, is short ; as, e in mews, i in patrice. Thus, 

Conscia mens recti famse mendacia. rldet. Ovid. F. 4, 311. 
Ipse Warn eximlce laudis succensus SLmore. Virg. A. 7, 496. 

(b.) So also when h comes between the vowels, since h is account- 
ed only a breathing; as, nihil: (see § 2, 6.) Thus, 

DS nihlld nViil, in nViUum nil posse reverti. Pers. 4, 84. 



320 PROSODY. — QUANTITY GENERAL RULES. § 283. 

Exc. 1. (a.) Fio has the i long, except in fit and when followed 
by er ; as fiunt, fiebam. Thus, 

Omnia jam fiant, fieri quae posse negabam. Ovid. Tr. 1, 8. 7. 

(b.) It is sometimes found long even before er; as, fieret. Ter.; fieri. Plaut: 
and, on the contrary, Prudentius has fid with i short. 

Exc. 2. (a.) jB is long in the termination of the genitive and da- 
tive of the fifth declension, when preceded and followed by i ; as, 
faciei. Thus, 

Non radii solis, neque lucida tela diei. Lucr. 1, 148. 
(b.) In spei, rei, and fidei, e is short. 

Note. In Lucretius, the e of rei is, in a few cases, long, and that of fidei is 
lengthened once in Lucretius and once in a line of Ennius. 

Exc. 3. (a.) A is long in the penult of old genitives in ax of the 
first declension ; as, auldi, pictai. Cf. § 43, 1. 

(b.) A and e are also long in proper names in aius, elus, or eia; as, Cdius, 
Pompeius, Aquileia ; and in the adjectives Grains and Veius. Thus, 
-ZEtherium sensum, atque aurai simplicis ignem. Virg. A. 6, 747. 
Acclpe, Pompei, dSductum carmen afrillo. Ovid. Pont. 4, 1, 1. 
Necnon cum Venetis Aquileia perf urit armis. Sil. 8, 606. 

Exc. 4. (a.) / is common in genitives in ius; as, unius, illius. 
Thus, 

Iltius et nltldo stillent unguenta capillo. Tibull, 1, 7, 51. 
Illliis puro d3stillent tempora nardo. Id. 2, 2. 7. 

(b.) But i in the genitive of alter is commonly short; and in that of alius it is 
always long. 

Exc. 5. The first vowel of eheu is long ; that of Diana, to, and ohe, 
is common. 

Exc. 6. Greek words retain their original quantities, and hence, 
in many Greek words, a vowel is long, though immediately followed 
by another vowel ; as, 

aer, Achdia, Acheloils, dia, eos, Laertes, and Greek words having in the orig- 
inal a long e or o [» or ».) See also § 293, 3. 

(1.) Words which, in Greek, are written with ei (si) before a vowel, and in 
Latin with a single e or i, have the e or i long ; as, JEneas, Alexandria, Cassio- 
pea, Clio, Darius, eleyia, Galatea, Medea, Mausoleum, Peneldpea, Thalia, Atrides. 

Hence, most adjectives in eus, formed from Greek proper names, have the e 
long ; as, Cythereus, Pel6peus ; and the e remains long when ei is restored ; as, 
Pel6pela. 

Exc. Academia, chorea, Mdlea, platea, and some patronymics and patrials 
in els; as, Nereis, have the penult common. 

(2.) Greek genitives in eos, and accusatives in ea, from nominatives in eus, 
generally shorten the e ; as, Orpheos, Orphea ; — but the e is sometimes length- 
ened by the Ionic dialect; as, CCpheos, Ilionea. 

(3.) Greek words in ais, ois, aius, eius, oius, aon, and ion, generally lengthen 
the first vowel; as, Nais, Mindis, Grains, Nereius, Minoius, Mdchdon, Jxion. 
But Tlubdis, Simdis, Phdon, Deucalion, Pygmalion, and many others, shorten 
the former vowel. 

Note 1. Greek words in aon and ion, with o short in the genitive, have the 
penult long; but witho long in the genitive, they have it short; as, Amythdon y 
-ddnis ; Deucalion, -onis. 



§ 283. PROSODY. — QUANTITY — GENERAL RULES. 321 

Note 2. In Greek proper names in ens (gen. eos), as Orpheus, the eu in the 
nominative is always a diphthong in the original, and, with very few excep- 
tions, in the Latin poets. 

II. A diphthong is long ; as, aurum, fcenus, Eubola, Pom- 
peius, OrpkeTi. Thus, 

Infermque lacus, Mrraque insula Circfe. Virg. A. 8, 386. 
Thesauros ignOtum argenti poudus et auri. Id. A. 1, 359. 
HarpyicEq\xe colunt alue, Phlneia postquam. Id. A. 3, 212. 

Exc. 1. Pre?,, in composition, is short before a vowel ; as, prceustus, 
prceacutus. Thus, 

Nee tota tamen ille prior prceeunte carina. Virg. A. 5, 186. 
In Statius, and Sidonius ApoUinaris, it is found long. 

Exc. 2. A diphthong at the end of a word, when the next word 
begins with a vowel, is sometimes made short ; as, 

Insula Ionio in magno, quas dlra Celaeno. Virg. A. 3, 211. 

Exc. 3. The diphthongs consisting of u followed by a vowel are either long 
or short: the two vowels thus combined being subject to the same rules of 
quantity, as their final vowel would be if standing alone; as, qua, qui, quorum, 
quia, quibus, qudtio, queror, azqu6r, lingua, sanguis. 

III. A syllable formed by contraction is long ; as, 

dlius for aliius ; cogo for vdago ; nil for nihil ; junior for juvenior. Thus, 
Tltyre edge pceus, tu past carecta latebas. Virg. E. 3, 20. 

IV. A vowel naturally short, before two consonants, a double 
consonant, or the letter j, is long by position ; as, drma, bellum, 
axis, gdza, major. Thus, 

Pascf.re Sportet oves deductum dlcere carmen. Virg. E. 6. 5. 
Nee myrtus vlncet corylos ; ncc laurea Phoebi. Id. E. 7, 64. 
At nobis, Pax alma, veni, spTcamque teneto. Tibull. 1, 10, 67. 
Kara juvant : prlmis sic major gratia poniis. Mart. 4. 29, 3. 

Note 1. A vowel (other than i) before j is in reality lengthened by forming 
a diphthong with it, since i and j are in fact but one" letter. Thus major is 
equivalent to mai'-or, which would be pronounced mu'-yor. See § 9, 1. 

Exc. 1. The compounds of jtigum have i short before /; as, btju- 
gut, quadrijugus. Thus, 

Jnterea Injugis infert se LucagU3 albis. Virg. A. 10, 575. 

Remark. The vowel is long by position, when either one or both 
of the consonants is in the same word with it; but when both stand 
at the beginning of the following word, the vowel is either long or 
short ; as, 

Tolle moras; semper nSmlt differre pariitis. Lucan. 1, 281. 
Ferte clti ferrum ; date tela: scandlte muro?. Virg. A. 9, 37. 
Ne tamen igndret. quae sit se.ntentia scripto. Ovid. 

Note 2. A short vowel at the end of a word, before an initial double conso- 
nant or j in the following word, is not lengthened. 

Note 3. In the comic poets a vowel frequently remains short though fol- 
lowed by two consonants, especially if only one of them is in the same word. 



322 PROSODY. QUANTITY — SPECIAL PULES. § 284. 

Ex( 

liquid, 
Thus, 



Exc. 2. A vowel naturally short, before a mute followed by a 
liquid, is common ; as, agris, plidretra, volucris, poplites, cochlea. 



Et prlmo simllis vSlucri, mox vera vSlucris. Ovid. M. 13. 607. 
Natum ante 5ra patris, patrem qui obtruncat ad aras. Virg. A. 2, 663. 
Nox t&nZbras profert, Phoebus fugat inde tfriSbras. Ovid. 

Rem. 1. If the vowel before a mute and liquid is naturally long, it continues 
so ; as, sdlubris, ambulacrum. 

Rem. 2. In compound words, of which the former part ends with a mute, and 
the latter begins with a liquid, a short vowel before the mute is made long by- 
position ; as, dbluo, obruo, sublevo, quamdbrem. 

Rem. 3. A mute and liquid at the beginning of a word seldom lengthen the 
short vowel of the preceding word, except in the arsis of a foot; as, 
Terras^we tractusque maris coelumque profundum. Virg. E. 4, 51. 

Rem. 4. In Latin words, only the liquids I and r following a mute render 
the preceding short vowel common ; but, in words of_ Greek origin, m and n 
after a mute have the same effect, as in Tecmessa, Procne, Cycnus. 



SPECIAL RULES. 

FIRST AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

I. DERIVATIVE WORDS. 

§ 284. Derivative words retain the quantity of their primi- 
tives ; as, 

by conjugation, amo, amat, amdbal, amavi, amdtus, etc. ; by declension, amor, 
amoris, amori, amoribus, etc. ; so, animal, animdtus, from anima; gemebundus, 
from gemere ; famiUa, from famulus ; maternus, from mater ; propinquus, from 
prbpe. 

Note 1. Ldr, par, sal, and pes in declension shorten the vowel of the nomi- 
native; as, sails, pedis, etc. 

Note 2. The vowel of the primitive is sometimes lengthened or shortened in 
the derivative by the addition or removal of a consonant. 

Rem. 1. Derivatives from increasing nouns of the second or third 
declension agree in quantity with the increment of their primitives ; 

as, 
pueritia, from pueri; virgineus, from virgmis; saluber, from sdlutis. 

Rem. 2. In verbs, the vowels of the derived tenses and of deriva- 
tive words agree in quantity with the verbal root from which they 
are formed ; as, 

movebam, movebo, moveam, moverem, move, movere, moxens, mbvendus, 
from mdv, the root of the present, with 6 short; — mbveram,mdverim, mbvissem, 
movero, movisse, from mdv, the root of the perfect, with 6 long; mbturus ana 
motws ; — moto, motio, motor, and motws, -us, from mot, the root of the supine, 
with o also long. 

Rem. 3. (a.) Sdluium and volutum from solvo and volvo have the first syllable 
Bhort, as if from sdluo, vdluo. So, from gigno come genui, genitum, as if from 
gSno; and pdlui, from j^tis sum (possum). 



§ 284. PROSODY. — QUANTITY — DERIVATIVE WORDS. 323 

(b.) The a in da, imperative of do, is long, though short in other parts of the 
verb. See § 294, 2. 

(c.) The o in pdsui and pdsitum is short, though long in pono. 

Exc. 1. Perfects and supines of two syllables have the first 
syllable long, even when that of the present is short ; as, 

vent, vidi, feci, from venio, video, fdcio; cdsum, motum, visum, from cddo, 
moveo, video. 

Note 3. Such perfects are supposed to have been formed either by the con- 
traction of reduplicated syllables, as venio, perf. veveni, by syncope veeni, by 
crasis veni, or by the omission of a consonant, as video, perf. vidsi, by syncope 
vidi, the vowel retaining the quantity which it had by position. 

Note 4. The long vowel of dissyllabic supines probably arose in like man- 
ner from syncope and contraction ; as, video, vidsum, by syncope visum ; moveo, 
nwvitum, by syncope mditum, by contraction motum. 

(1.) (a.) These seven perfects have the first syllable short: — bibi, 
dedi, fidi, (from findo), scidi, steti, stili, tuli. So also perculi, from 
percello. 

(b.) The first syllable is also short before a vowel (§ 283, I.); as, rui. 

(2.) (a.) These ten supines have the first syllable short : — citum, 
(from cico), datum, itum, liturn, quitum, rattan, rutum, saturn, situm, 
and station. 

(b.) So, also, had the obsolete futum, from fud, whence comes futurus. 

Exc. 2. (a.) Reduplicated polysyllabic perfects have the first two 
syllables short ; as, 

cecidi, cecini, tetiyi, didici, from cddo, cano, tango, and disco. 

(b.) The second syllable of reduplicated perfects is sometimes made long by 
position; as, mdmordi, tetendi. — Cecidi from ccedo, and pepedi from pedo, retain- 
ing the quantity of their first root also have the second syllable long. 

Exc. 3. Desiderative verbs in urio hav* the u short, though, in the third 
root of the verbs from which they are formed, it is long; as, ccendturio from 
coendtu, the third root of cceno. So parturio, esuno, nupturio. 

Exc. 4. Frequentative verbs, formed from the third root of verbs of the first 
conjugation, have the i short; as, cldmito, volito. See § 187, IE 1. 

Exc. 5. A few other derivatives deviate from the quantity of their primi- 
tives. 

1. Some have a long vowel from a short one in the primitive. 
Such are, 

Deni, from dt-cem. Mdbilis, from moveo. Stipendium, from stips 

Fames and )from Persona, from persouo. (stlpis). 

Fomentum, ( fovea Regula and ) from Susplcio, onis, from sus- 

Humanus, from homo. Rex (regis), ) rego. picor. 

Laterna, from lateo, Secius, from secus. Tegula, from tego. 

Lit era from lino. Sedes, from sedeo. 

Lex (legis), from lego. Semen, from sei*o. 

2. Some have a short vowel from a long one in the primitive. 
Such are, 

Dlcax, from dlco. Molestus, from moles. Sagax, from sagio. 

Dux (dficis), from duco. Kato, from natu. sup. Sopor, from sopio. 

Fides, from fido. Noto, from notu. sup. Vadum, from vado. 

Labo, from labor, dep. v. odium, from odi. Voco, from vox (vocis.) 

Lucerna, from luceo. Quasillus, from qualus. 



324 PROSODY. QUANTITY COMPOUND WORDS. § 285. 

Note 1. Disertus comes regularly (by syncope) from dissertus, the prefix dis 
being short, § 299, 1. Cf. dirimo and diribeo, where s is changed to r. See § 196, 
(6.) 2. 

Note 2. Some other words might, perhaps, with propriety be added to these 
lists ; but, in regard to the derivation of most of them, grammarians are not 
entirely agreed. 

Remark 1. Some of these irregularities seem to have arisen from the influ- 
ence of syncope and crasis. Thus mobilis may have been mbvibilis; mbtum, 
mbvitum, etc. 

Rem. 2. Sometimes the vowel in the derived word being naturally short, is 
restored to its proper quantity by removing one of the consonants which, in 
the primitive, made it long by position ; as, nux, nucis. So, when the vowel of 
the primitive is naturally long, but has been made short before another vowel, 
it is sometimes restored to its original quantity by the insertion of a consonant ; 
as, hlbernus, from hiems. 

Rem. 3. The first syllable in liquidus is supposed to be common, as coming 
either from liquor or liqueo ; as, 

Crassaque conyeniant liquidis, et llquida crassis. Lucr. 4, 1255. 

n. COMPOUND WORDS. 

§ 385. 1. Compound words retain the quantity of the words 

which compose them ; as, 

defero, of de and fero ; ddoro, of ad and bro. So dbdrior, dmdveo, circumeo, 
cdmedo, enitor, prbduco, suborno. 

2. The change of a vowel or a diphthong in forming the compound 
does not alter its quantity ; as, 

concido, from cado; concido, from ccedo; erigo, from rego; recludo, from claudo; 
inlquus, from cequus. 

Exc. 1. A long syllable in the simple word becomes short in the following 
compounds : — agmtus and cognitus^ from nbtus ; dejero and pejero, from juro ; 
hddie, from hoc die : nihilum and nihil, from hllum ; causidicus, and other com- 
pounds ending in dicus, from dlco. 

Exc. 2. Imbecillus, from bdellium, has the second syllable long. The partici- 
ple ambitus has the penult long from Hum, but the nouns ambitus and ambitio 
follow the rule. 

Exc. 3. Innuba, pronuba, and subnuba, from nubo, have u short; but in con- 
nublum, it is common. 

Exc. 4. final, in the compounds of do and sto, is common, though long in 
the simple verbs. § 294, (a.) 

Note 1. Prepositions of one syllable, which end in a vowel, are long (§ 294, 
(a.); those which end in a single consonant are short (§ 299, 1.) — Tra from 
trans is long ; as, t rddo, trdduco. 

Exc. 5. Pro, in the following compounds, is short :—prdfdnvs, prof dm, 
profecto, profestus, proficiscor, prqfiteor, prSfugio, profugus, proceUa, pro- 
fundus, prdnepos, prdneptis, and prtitervus. It is common in procii.ro, prof undo, 
propd<)0, proptllo, and propino. — Respecting proz in composition before a vowel, 
see § 283, II. Exc. 1. 

Rem. 1. The Greek preposition pro (before) is short; as, prbpheta. In prol- 
dgus, propola, and propino, it is common. 

Rem. 2. The inseparable prepositions di (for dis) and se are long ; 
as, 
didiico, sepdro. Respecting disertus, see § 284, Exc. 5, 2, N. 1. 






§ 286. PROSODY. — QUANTITY INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 325 

Rem. 3. (a.) The inseparable preposition re or red is short ; as, 

remitto, refero, reddmo. 

(b.) Re is sometimes lengthened in religio, reliquiae,, reliquus, reperit, retulit, 
repulit, recidit, reducere, where some editors double the consonant following re. 
Cf. § 307, 2. In the impersonal verb refert, re is long, as coming from res. 

Rem. 4. A ending the former part of a compound word, is long; 
the other vowels are short ; as, 

mdlo, qudpropter, trddo, {trans do); ntfas, valedico, hujuscemodi; biceps, tri- 
dens, omnipdtens, significo ; hddie, quaruloquidem, phibsdphus ; ducenti, locuples, 
Trdjugena; Polydvrus, Eurypylus, Thrdsybulus. 

Exc. 1. A. A is short in quasi, eddem, when not an ablative, and in some 
Greek compounds; as, cdtdpulta, hexameter. 

Exc. 2. E. E is long in credo, nemo, nequam, neqadquam, nequidquam, ne- 
quis, nequitia ; memet, mecum, tecum, secum, sese, records, vesdnus, veneficus, and 
videlicet ; — also in words compounded with se for sex or semi; as, sedecim, 
semestris, semodius ; but in selibra it is found short in Martial. 

Note 2. (a.) The first e in videlicet, as in vide, is sometimes made short. 
See $ 295, Exc. 3. 

(b.) E is common in some verbs compounded with fdcio; as, liquefdcio, 
pdtefdcio, rdrefacio, tdbefacio, tepefdeio. 

Exc. 3. 1. (1.) lis long in those compounds in which the first part is de- 
clined, (§296;) as, quidam, quivis, quilibet, quantivis, quanticumque, tantidem, 
unicuique, eidem, reipublicai, utrique. 

(2.) lis also long in those compounds which maybe separated without al- 
tering the sense, (§296;) as, ludimdgister, siquis, agricultura. 

(3.) /, ending the former part of a compound word, is sometimes made long 
by contraction ; as, tibicen for tibiicen, from tibia and cdno. See § 283, III. 

(4.) lis long in biga, quadrigai, ilicet, scilicet. 

(5.) In idem, when masculine, i is long; but when neuter, it is short. The i 
of ublque and utrobique, the second in ibidem, and the first in nimirum, are long. 
In ubicumque, as in ubi, i is common. 

(6.) Compounds of dies have the final i of the former part long; as, biduum, 
triduum, meridies, qudtidie, quotididnus, pridie, postridie. 

Note 3. In Greek words, i, ending the former part of a compound, is short; 
as, Callimdchus ; unless it comes from the diphthong ei (a), or is made long or 
common by position. 

Exc. 4. O. (1.) In compounds, the final o of conlro, intro, retro, and quando 
(except quandoquidem,) is long; as, controversia, introduco, retrocedo, quandoque. 
is long also in dlioqui (-quin), and utroque. 

(2.) is long in the compounds of quo and eo; as, quomodo, quocumque, qub- 
nam, quolibet, quominus, quocirca, qudvis, qudque (i. e. et quo) ; eodem, eone ; but 
in the conjunction qudque, it is short. 

(3.) Greek words which are written with an omega (ce) have the o long; as, 
geometra, Minotaurus, lagqpus. 

Exc. 5. U. Uis long in Jupiter {Jovis pater), and judico [jus dlco). 

in. INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 

§ 28G. 1. A noun is said to increase, when, in any of its cases, 
it has more syllables than in the nominative singular; as, pax, pacis; 
sermo, sermonis. The number of increments in. any case of a noun is 
equal to that of its additional syllables. 
28 



326 PROSODY. — QUANTITY — INCREMENT OP NOUNS. § 287. 

2. Nouns in general hare but one increment in the singular, but 
tier, supellex, compounds of caput ending in ps, and sometimes jecur, 
have two increments ; as, 

iter, t-tin-e-7'is ; supellex, su-pel-lec-U-lis ; anceps, an-cip-i-tis ; jecur, je-tin- 
6-ris. 

Remark. The double increase of iter, etc., in the singular number arises 
from their coming from obsolete nominatives, containing a syllable more than 
those now in use ; as, itiner, etc. 

3. The dative and ablative plural of the third declension have one 
increment more than the genitive singular ; as, 

rex, Gen. re-gis, D. and Ab. reg-i-bus. 

sermo, ser-mo-nis, ser-mon-i-bus. 

iter, i-tin-e-ris, it-i-ner-i-bus. 

4. The last syllable of a word is never considered as the incre- 
ment. If a word has but one increment, it is the penult ; if two, the 
antepenult is called the first, and the penult the second ; and if three, 
the syllable before the antepenult is called the first, the antepenult 
the second, and the penult the third increment ; as, 

1 12 12123 

ser-mo, ser-mo-nis, ser-mon-i-bus ; i-ter, i-tin-e-ris, it-i-ner-i-bus. 

5. In the third declension, the quantity of the first increment is the 
same in all the other cases as in the genitive singular ; as, 

sermonis, sermoni, sermonem, sermone, sermones, sermonum, sermonibus. Bdbus, 
or bubus, from bos, bdvis, is lengthened by contraction from bdvibus. 

Note. As adjectives and participles are declined like nouns, the same rules 
of increment apply to all of them ; and so also to pronouns. 

INCREMENTS OF THE SINGULAR NUMBER. 

OP THE FIRST, FOURTH, AND FIFTH DECLENSIONS. 

§ ™8# • 1. "When nouns of the first, fourth, and fifth declensions in- 
crease in the singular number, the increment consists of a vowel before the 
final vowel, and its quantity is determined by the first general rule with its ex- 
ceptions, § 283, I. 

Thus, aura, gen. aurai, § 283, I. Exc. 3, (a.): fructus, dat. fructui, § 283, 1. 
(a.): dies, gen. diei, § 283, I. Exc. 2, (a.) 

INCREMENTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

2. The increments of the second declension in the singular 
number are short ; as, 

gSner, generi ; satur, sdturi ; tener, teneri ; vir, viri. Thus, 

Ne, putri, ne tanta animis assuescite bella. Virg. A. 6, 833. 
Monstra slnunt; gSniSros externis aff ore ab oris. Id. A. 7, 270. 

Exc. The increment of Iber and Celtiber is long. For that of genitives in 
ius, see § 283, Exc. 4. 



§ 287. PROSODY. QUANTITY INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 327 

INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

3. The increments of the third declension and singular num- 
ber in a and o are long ; those in e, i, u, and y, are short ; as, 

animal, animdlis ; audax, auddcis ; sermo, sermdnis ; ferox, ferdcis ; opus, 
dperis ; celer, ceteris ; miles, mllitis ; supplex, supplicis ; murmur, murmuris ; 
dux, duels; chldmys, chldmydis; Styx, Siygis. Thus, 

Pronaque cum spectent antm&lia cetera terram. Ovid. M. 1, 84. 

Haec turn multipllci populos sermOne replebat. Virg. A. 4, 189. 

Incumbent gSniris lapsi sarclre rulnas. Id. G. 4, 249. 

Qualem virglneo demessum poltice florem. Id. A. 11, 68. 

Adsplce, ventosi ceclderunt murmtiris aurse. Id. E. 9, 58. 

Exceptions in Increments in A. 

1. (a.) Masculines in al and ar (except Car and Nar) increase 
short ; as, Annlbal, Annibalis ; Amilcar, Amilcaris. 

(b.) Par and its compounds, and the following — anas, mas, vas (vddis), Jao 
car, hepar, jubar, lar, nectar, and sal — also increase short. 

2. A, in the increment of nouns in s with a consonant before it, is 
short ; as, daps, dapis ; Arabs, Ardbis. 

3. Greek nouns in a and as (adis, dnis, or atis) increase short ; as, 
lampas, lampddis ; Melas, Melanis ; poema, poemdtis. 

4. The following in ax increase short: — dbax, anthrax, Arctdphylax, Atax % 
Atrax, climax, cdlax, cdrax, and nycticdrax, dropax, fax, harpax, pdnax, smilax, 
and styrax. — The increment of Syphax is doubtful. 

Exceptions in Increments in O. 

1. 0, in the increment of neuter nouns, is short; as, 

marrnor, marmdris ; corpus, corpdris ; ebur, ebdris. But os (the mouth), and 
the neuter of comparatives, like their masculine and feminine, increase long. 
The increment of odor is common. 

2. is short in the increment of Greek nouns in o or on, which, 
in the oblique cases, have omicron, but loug in those which have 
omega; as, 

A<~don, Ai'donis; Aadmemnon, Agdmemndnis : — Plato, Pldtdnis ; Sinon, Sinonis; 
Sicyun, Sicyunis. Sk/on, Orion, and JEyaon, have the increment common. 

3. (a.) In the increment of gentile nouns in o or on, whether 
Greek or barbaric, o is generally short ; as, 

M&cedo, MSeedHms. So, Amazones, Adnes, Myrmiddnes, Santdnes, Saxdnes, 
SenOnts, Teutdnes, etc. 

(i.) But the following have o long: — Eburdnes, Lacdnes, Idnes, Nasamdnes, 
Suessones (or -idnes), Vettdnes, Burgundidnes. Britones has the o common. 

4. Greek nouns in or increase short; as, Hector, Hectoris ; rhetor, 
rlietoris ; Agtnor, Ayendris. 

5. Compounds of pus, {irwt\ as Mpus, polypus, GEdipus, and also arbor, 
memor, bus, comjxis, impos, and lejjus, increase short. 

6. 0, in the increment of nouns in s with a consonant before it, is 
short; as, 



328 PROSODY. — QUANTITY — INCREMENT OP NOUNS. § 288. 

scrobs, scrobis ; inops, inqpis ; Dolqpes. But it is long in the increment of 
cercops, Cyclops, and hydrops. 
7. The increment of Allobrox, Cappadox, and prcecox, is also short. 

Exceptions in Increments in E. 

1. Nouns in en, enis (except Hymen), lengthen their increment; 
as, Siren, Sirenis. So, Anienis, Nerienis, from Anio and Nerio, or 
rather from the obsolete Amen and Nerienes. 

2. Eceres, Idcuples, mansues, merces, and quies — also Iber, ver, lex, rex, alec or 
alex (Ml-) narthex and vervex— plebs and seps — increase long. 

3. Greek nouns in es and er (except aer and tether) increase long ; 
as, magnes, magnetis; crater, crateris. 

Exceptions in Increments in I. 

1. Nouns and adjectives in ix, increase long ; as, victrix, victrlcis ; 
felix, fellcis. 

Exc. (Mix, Cilix, coxendix, filix, fornix, Jiystrix, larix, nix, pix, sdlix, strix, 
and rarely sandix or sandyx, increase short. 

2. Vlbex and the following nouns in is increase long: — dis, glis, lis, vis, Ne- 
sis, Quiris, and Samnis. The increment of Psophis is common. 

3. Greek nouns, whose genitive is in inis increase long ; as, del- 
pihin, delphmis ; Sdlamis, Salaminis. 

Exceptions in Increments in U. 

1. Genitives in udis, uris, and utis, from nominatives in us, have 
the penult long; as, 

palus, pdludis; tellus, telluris; virtus, virttitis. But intercus, Ligus and pecus, 
pecudis, increase short. 

2. Fur, frux, (obs.), lux, and Pollux, increase long. 

Exceptions in Increments in Y. 

1. Greek nouns whose genitive is in ynis, increase long; as, Tra- 
cJiyn, Trachynis. 

2. The increment of bombyx, Ceyx, gryps, and inormyr, is long ; that of Be~ 
bryx and sandyx is common. 

INCREMENTS OF THE PLUEAL NUMBER. 

§ 288. 1. A noun in the plural number is said to increase, 
•when, in any case, it has more syllables than in the ablative singular. 

Remark. When the ablative singular is wanting, or its place is supplied by 
a form derived from a different root, an ablative may, for this purpose, be as- 
sumed, by annexing the proper termination to the root of the plural. 

2. When a noun increases in the plural number, its penult is called the 
plural increment; as, sa in musdrum, no in ddminorum, pi in rupium and 
rupibus. 



§ 289, 290. prosody. — quantity — increment of verbs. 329 

3. In plural increments, a, e, and o, are long, i and u are short ; 
as, 

btindrum, dnimdbus, rerum, rebus, generorum, ambobus; sermonibtts, lacubus, 
Thus, 

Appia, longSrum, terltur, reglna viarum. Stat. S. 2, 2, 12. 
Sunt lacrymae rerum, et mentem mortalia tangunt. Virg. A. 1, 462. 
Atque alii, quorum comoedia prisca vlrdrum est. Hor. S. 1, 4, 2. 
Portubus egredior, ventisque fgrenttbus usus. Ovid. 

iv. •increment of verbs. 

§ 280. 1 . A verb is said to increase, when, in any of its parts, 
it has more syllables than in the second person singular of the present 
indicative active ; as, das, dd-tis ; ddces, dd-ce-mus. 

2. The number of increments in any part of a verb is equal to that 
of its additional syllables. In verbs, as in nouns, the last syllable is 
never considered the increment. If a verb has but one increment, it 
is the penult ; and this first increment, through all the variations of 
the verb, except in reduplicated tenses, continues equally distant 
from the first syllable. The remaining increments are numbered 
successively from the first ; as, 



a-mas, 


mo-nes, 


au-dis, 


1 

a-ma-mus, 


1 

mo-ne-tur, 


1 

au-dl-tis, 


1 2 
am-a-ba-mus, 


1 2 
mon-e-re-tur, 


1 2 

au-di-e-bas, 


12 3 

am-a-ve-ra-mus. 


12 3 

mon-e-bim-I-ni. 


12 3 4 

au-di-e-bam-I-ni. 



3. A verb in the active voice may have three increments ; in the passive, it 
may have four. 

4. In determining the increments of deponent verbs, an active 
voice, formed from the same root, may be supposed. 

1 12 

Thus the increments of loe-td-tur, ket-d-bd-tur, etc., are reckoned from the 
supposed verb loeto, loetas. 

§ 200. In the increments of verbs, a, e, and o, are long ; 

t and u are short ; as, 

dmdre, mdnere, Jadtote, vdlumus, regebdndni. Thus, 

Et cantare pares, et responds™ paruti. Virg. E. 7, 5. 
Sic equldem ducebam anlmo, rcbarqae futurum. Id. A. 6, 690. 
Cumque loqui poterit, matrem faclldte salutet. Ouid, M. 9. 378. 
Scindltur incertum studia in contraria vulgus. Virg. A. 2, 39. 
Nos Humerus sumus, et fruges consumere nati. Hor. Ep. 1, 2, 27. 

(a.) Exceptions in Increments in A. 

The first increment of do is short ; as, damuSy dabdmus t darety da- 
turns, circumddre, circumddbamus. 
28* 



330 PEOSODT. QUANTITY INCREMENT OF VERBS. § 290. 

(&.) Exceptions in Increments in E. 

1. E before r is short in the first increment of all the present and 
imperfect tenses of the third conjugation, and in the second increment 
in beris and here ; as, 

regere (iafin. and imperat.), regeris or regere (pres. ind. pass.), regerem and 
regerer (imp. subj.); dmdberis, dmdbere ; mdneberis, monebere. 

Note 1. In velim, veils, etc., from volo, (second person, regularly volts, by- 
syncope and contraction vis), e is not an increment^ but represents the root 
vowel 6, and is therefore short; § 284, and § 178, 1. 

2. E is short before ram, rim, ro, and the persons formed from 
them; as, 

amaveram, amaverat, amaverim, mdnuerimus, rexero, audlveritis. 

Note 2. In verbs which have been shortened by syncope or otherwise, e be- 
fore r retains its original quantity; as, Jleram, for Jteveram. 

For the short e before runt, in the perfect indicative, as, steterunt, see Systole, 
§307. 

(c.) Exceptions in Increments in I. 

1. /before v or s, in tenses formed from the second root, is long; 

as, 
petlvi, audivi, quceslvit, divisit, audlvimus, divlsimus, aicdiveram. 

2. J is long, after the analogy of the fourth conjugation, in the final 
syllable of the third root of gaudeo, arcesso, divido, fdcesso, lacesso, 
peto, qucero, recenseo and oMiviscor ; as, 

gdvlsus, arcess'dus, dlvlsus, fdcessltus, lacess'dus, petltus, qucesltus, recensltus, 
obhtus ; gdvlsurus, etc. 

3. I in the first increment of the fourth conjugation, except in 
zmus of the perfect indicative, is long ; as, 

audlre, audirem, audltus, audlturus, pres. venlmus, but in the perfect venimus. 
So in the ancient forms in ibam, Ibo, of the fourth conjugation; as, nutribat, 
lenlbunt ; and also in ibam and ibo, from eo. 

Note 3. When a vowel follows, the i is short, by § 283; as, audiunt, audie- 
bam. 

4. 7 is long in the first and second persons plural of subjunctives in sim, sis, 
sit, etc., (§ 162, 1,); as, slmus, sltis, vellmus, velltis, and their compounds; as, 
possimus, adslmus, mdllmus, ndlimus. So also in nolito, nollte, nolltote, after the 
analogy of the fourth conjugation. 

5. I in ris, rimus and ritis, in the future perfect and perfect sub- 
junctive, is common ; as, 

videris, Mart., occiderls, Hor. ; vlderUis (Ovid), dederitis (Id.); fecervnus (Ca- 
tull.), egerimus (Virg.) 

(d.) Exceptions in Increments in U. 

U is long in the increment of supines, and of participles formed 
from the third root of the verb ; as, 
secutus, sdlutus, secuturus, sdluturus. 



§ 291. PROSODY. QUANTITY — PENULTS. 331 

RULES FOR THE QUANTITY OF PENULTIMATE AND ANTEPE- 
NULTIMATE SYLLABLES. 

I. PENULTS. 

§ 291. 1. Words ending in acus, icus, and icum, shorten the 
penult; as, 

dmdrdcus, jEgyptidcus, rusticus, trlticum, viaticum. 

Except Ddcus, merdcus, dpdcus ; amicus, apincus, flcus, mendlcus, plcus, 
posticus, pudlcus, splcus, umbilicus, vlcus. 

2. Words ending in abrum, ubrum, acrum, and atrum. lengthen the 
penult; as, 

candeWbrum, deluorum, lavdcrum, verdtrum. 

3. Nouns in ca lengthen the penult ; as, 

dpdtheca, cloaca, lactuca, lorlca, phoca. 

Except dlica, brassica, dica, fullca, mantica, pedica, perlica, scidica, pMlarica, 
tunica, vdmica ; and also some nouns in ica derived from adjectives in icus; 
as, fabrica, grammdtica, etc. So mdnicai. 

4. Patronymics in ades and ides shorten the penult ; as, Atlantiades, 
Priamides. 

Except those in ides which are formed from nouns in eus or es (»c) ; as, 
Atrides, from Atreus; Neoclldes, from Neocles ; except, also, Amphidrdldes, 
Betides, Amyclldes, Lycurgldes. 

5. Patronymics and similar words in ais, eis, and ois, lengthen the 
penult; as, 

Achats, Chryseis, Mirms. Except Phocdis and Thebdis. The penult of Ne- 
reis is common. 

6. Words in do lengthen the penult; as, 

vddo, cedo, dulcedo, formldo, rodo, testudo. Except cado, dlvido, edo (to eat), 
comedo, Macedo, mddo, sdlido, spado, trepido. Rudo is common. 

7. Words in idus shorten the penult ; those in udus lengthen it ; 
as, 

callidus, herbidus, limpidus, llvidus, per f idus ; crudus, Indus, nudus, sudus, iidus. 
Except idus, fldus, infldus, nidus, sldus. 

8. Nouns in ga and go lengthen the penult ; as, 

saga, collega, auriga, ruga; imago, callgo, cprugo. Except cdliga, ossifrdga, 
tdga, pldga, (a region, or a net), fuga and its compounds, stega, ecldga, ego, 
harpdgo, ligo. 

9. Words in le, les, and lis, lengthen the penult ; as, 

crlndle, mantele, anclle ; ales, miles, proles ; anndlis, crudeUs, clvllls, curulis. — 
Except male ; — verbals in His and bills ; as, dgilis, dmdbilis ; — adjectives in 
atilix; as, umbrdtilis, ; — and also, indoles, sdbdles; periscelis, dapsihs, gracilis, 
humilis, pdrilis, similis, sterilis, mugilis, strigilis. 

10. Words in elus, ela, elum, lengthen the penult; as, 
phdselus, querela, prelum. Except gelus, gelum, scelus. 

11. Diminutives in olus, ola, olum, ulus, ula, ulum, also words in 



332 PEOSODT. — QUANTITY — PENULTS. § 291. 

ilus, and those in ulus, ula> and ulum, of more than two syllables, 
shorten the penult ; as, 

urceolus, filidla, lectulus, rdtiuncula, corculum, pabulum; rutilus, garrulus, 
fabula. Except dsilus. 

12. "Words in ma lengthen the penult; as, 

fdma, poema, rima, pluma. Except dnima, cdma, decuma, lacrlma, victima, 
hdma. 

13. A vowel before final men or mentum is long ; as, 

levdmen, gramen, crimen, Jlumen, jumentum, dtrdmentum. Except tamen, cd- 
lumen, Hymen, elementum, and a few verbal nouns derived from verbs of the 
second and third conjugations ; as, dlimentum, ddcumen or ddcumentum, emdlu- 
mentum, monumentum, regimen, specimen, tegimen, etc. 

14. "Words ending in imus shorten the penult; as, 

animus, decimus, finitxmus, fortissimus, maximus. Except blmus, llmus, mimus, 
dpimus, quddrlmus, slmus, trimus, and two superlatives, imus and primus. 

Note. When an adjective ends in umus for imus, the quantity remains the 
same ; as, decumus, optumus, maxumus. for decimus, etc. 

15. A, e, o, and u, before final mus and mum, are long; as, 
ramus, remus, extremus, promus, dumus, pomum, vdlemum. Except dtdmus, 

balsdmum, cinndmum, ddmus, gldmus, humus, postumus, thalamus, tomus, calamus, 



16. (a.) Words in na, ne, ni, and nis, lengthen the penult; as, 

lana, arena, carina, matrona, luna, mane, septeni, octoni, indnis, finis, immunis. 
Except advena, cottdna, piisdna, mina, yena, bene, sine, cdnis, cinis, juvenis ; and 
the following in ina, — buccina, ddmina, Jiscina,femina, fuscina, lamina, machina, 
pdgina, patina, sardna, tiblcina, trutina : and in plur. dpince, minw, nundinm. 
So compounds of geno; as, indigena. 

(p.) Verbs in ino and inor shorten the penult; as, 

destine, fasdno, inquino, sino, crlminor. Except jfestino, propino, sdgino, 6pi- 
nor, and the compounds of cllno ; as, incline-, etc. 

17. (a.) Adjectives in inus, when they express time, or indicate a 
material or an inanimate substance, shorten the penult ; as, 

crastinus, diutinus, pristinus, perendinus : fdginus, crocinus, hydcinthinus, ddd- 
mantinus, crystallinus, oledginus, bombycinus. Except mdtutinus, repentlnus, ves- 
pertlnus. 

(&.) Other adjectives and words in inus and in inum lengthen the 
penult; as, 

caninus, blnus, peregrinus, mdrinus, clandestinus, supinus: llnum. Except 
acinus, dsinus, cocclnus, cominus, eminus, cdphinus, dominus, fdcinus, faticinus, 
protinus, sinus, terminus, geminus, circinus, minus, vatlcinus, succinum, fascihum. 

18. A, e, o, and u, before final nus and num, are long ; as, 
urbdnus, serenus, patronus, pronus, munus, tribunus, fdnum, venenum, donum. 

Except anus, an old woman, galbdnus, mdnus, ocednus, pldtdnus, ebenus, genus, 
limigenus, penus, tenus, Venus, dnus, bonus, sdnus, thronus ; Idgdnum, peucedd- 
num, pdpdnum, tympanum, abrOtdnum. 

19. Words ending in ha, bo, pa, and po, shorten the penult; as, 
fdba, juba, sylldba ; bibo, cubo, prdbo ; dldpa, lupa, sedpha ; crepo, participo. 

Except gleba, saiba, bilbo, glabo, llbo, ndbo, scribo, sipho, cepa, cupa, papa, pupa, 
rlpa, scopa, stupa ; capo, repo, stlpo. 



§ 291. PROSODY. — QUANTITY PENULTS. 333 

20. Words in al, ar, are, and arts, lengthen the penult ; as, 
tribunal, vectigal : lupdnar, pulvinar ; altdre, laquedre ; ndris. Except animal, 

capital, ciibital, tdrdl, jubar, sdlar, mare, bvmdris, hildris, canthdris, cnppuris, 
Jcdris. 

21. Before final ro or ror, a and e are short ; i, o, and u, are long ; 
as, 

aro, pdro, fero, gero, sero, celero, tempero, queror ; mlror, spiro, tiro ; auctdro, 
igndro, dro ; euro, duro, figuro ; luror. Except declaro, pero, spero ; fdro, md- 
ror, soror, vdro, furo, sdturo ; and derivatives from genitives increasing short ; 
as, auguror, decdro, memdro, murmuro, etc. ; from augur, auguris ; decus, decd- 
ris, etc. 

22. Before final rus, ra, rum, e is short ; the other vowels are 
long; as, 

merum, merus, hedera, serum, ceterum; cams, mlrus, mdrus, murus, gyrus; 
dra, splra, dra, ndtura, lorum. 

Except, 1. austerus, gdlerus, plerus, procerus, sincerus, serus, severus, verus, 
cratera, cera, pera, panthera, stdtera. 

Exc. 2. barbdrus, cammdrus, cdmurus, canthdrus, chdrus, fdrus, helleborus, 
nurus, dpipdrus, dvipdrus, phosphdrus, pirus, sdtyrus, scdrus, spdr'us, tartdrus, 
tdrus, zephyrus ; amphdra, ancdra, cithdra, hdra, lyra, mdra, purpura, philyra, 
pyra, sdtira ; forum, garum, pdrum, suppdrum. 

23. Adjectives in osus lengthen the penult ; as, 

fumdsus, vindsus. 

24. Nouns in etas and itas shorten the penult ; as, 

jnitas, civttas, bdnllas. 

25. Adverbs in dm lengthen the penult, those in iter and itus 
shorten it ; as, 

stdtim, (constantly), virltim, Mbutim ; acriter, funditus. Except stdtlm, (im- 
mediately), affdtim. 

26. (a.) Words in ates, itis, otis, and in ata, eta, ota, uta, lengthen 
the penult, as, 

vales, pendtes, vltis, mills, cdrydtis, Icaridtis, pirdta, meta, poeta, dluta, cicula. 
Except sitis, polls, drdpeta, ndta, rota. 

(b.) Nouns in ita shorten the penult ; as, 
dmlta, ndvita, orbita, semita. Except pltulta. 

27. Nouns in atum, itum, utum, lengthen the penult; as, 

lupdtum, dedn'dum, verutum. Except difrutum, pulpitum, peldritum, lutum 
(mud), comjjitum. 

28. Nouns and adjectives ending in tus lengthen the penult ; as, 
barbdlus, grdtus, boletus, fdcetus, crinitus, peritus, aigrdlus, lotus, argutus, hir- 

sulus. Except cdtus, latus, (-em), impetus, melus, vegetus, velus ; dnhi'litus, digi- 
tus, grdtuitus, hdlitus, hospilus, servitus, spirttus; autiddtus, ndtus, qudtus, tolas 
i'su great); arbutus, putus; inclytus; and derivatives from perfect participles 
having a short penult; as, exertitus, habitus. 

29. A penultimate vowel before v is long; as, 

cldva, dliva, dives, ndvis, civis, pdpdver, pdvo, privo, ovum, prdvus, cestivus, 
fugitivus. Except avis, brevis, gravis, levis, dins; cdvo, grdvo, juvo, lavo, levo, 
Ovo ; dvus, edeus, fdvus, ndms, favor, pdvw, ndvem. 



334 PROSODY. — QUANTITY — ANTEPENULTS. § 292, 293. 

30. Words ending in dex, dix, mex, nix, lex, rex, lengthen the 
penult; as, 

codex, judex; lodix, radix; cimex, pumex ; junix; ilex; car ex, murex. 
Except culex, silex, rumex. 

II. ANTEPENULTS. 

§ 292. 1. Ik short in diminutives in iculus and icellus (a, um), 
whether nouns or adjectives ; as, 

colliculus, dulciculus, crdticula, pellicula, mollicellus. Except words in which 
the preceding vowel is short ; as, cuticula, cdnicula : or in which i is long in the 
primitive ; as, cornicula, from cornix, -icis. 

2. Numerals in ginti, ginta, eni, and esimus, lengthen the antepe- 
nult; as, 

viginti, quddrdginta, triceni, quinqudgesimus. 

3. and u before final lentus are short ; as, 
vindlentus, fraudulentus, pulverulentus, truculentus. 

4. A vowel before final nea, neo, nia, mo, nius, nium, is long ; as, 
drdnea, linea, cdneo, munia, punio, Fdvonius, patrimonium. Except castdnea, 

tinea, mdneo, mineo, mdneo, seneo, teneo, ignominia, luscinia, venia, lanio, venio, 
ingenium, genius, senio, senium ; words in cinium, as, lenoctnium ; and deriva- 
tives in onius, when o in the root of the primitive is short ; as, Agdmemnonius, 
from Agamemnon, -dnis. 

5. Words ending in areo, arius, arium, erium, orius, orium, lengthen 
the antepenult; as, 

dreo, ctbdrius, plantdrium, dicterium, censdrius, tentorium. Except cdreo, V&- 
rius, desiderium, imperium, mdgisterium, ministerium. 

6. Adjectives in aliens, atttis, lengthen the antepenult ; as, 
aqudticus, plumdtilis. Except some Greek words in dticus ; as, grammdticus. 

7. / before final tudo is short ; as, 
allitudo, longitudo. 

8. Verbals in bilis lengthen a but shorten i in the antepenult ; as, 
dmdbilis, mirdbilis; credibilis, terribilis. In hdbilis, b belongs to the root. 

9. U before v is short, (except in Juverna) ; as, 
juvenis, juvendlis, juvenilitas, Jluvius, diluvium. 

III. PENULT OF PROPER NAMES. 

§ 203. 1. Patrials and proper names of more than two sylla- 
bles, found in the poets with the following terminations, shorten the 
penult : — 



b:i, de, o,6 ges, dus, 13 ena, 19 arus, atus, 22 

ca, 1 le, 4 on, 7 les, eus, 14 anes, eras,'- 1 itus, 23 

la,' 2 pe, 5 os,8 lis, 10 gus, 15 enes, yrus, otus. 24 

be, re, er,9 bus, lus, 16 aris, asus, 

ce, 3 al, mas, cus, 11 mus, 1 ' yris, osus, 

che, il, ras, chus, 12 phus, 13 asis, 20 usus, 



§ 293. PROSODY. — QUANTITY PENULTS. 335 

Exceptions. 

1 MarIca, Nasica. — 2 Ei1ph5 T la, Messala, Philomela, Suadela. — 8 Berenice. — 
4 Eriphyle, Neobule, Perlmele. — 5 Europe, Slnope. — 6 Carthago, Cupavo, Ciipido, 
Origo, Theano. — 7 Alemon, Anthedon, Chalcedon, Iason, Philemon, Polype- 
mon, Sarpedon, Thermodon. — 8 Cercyros, Peparethos, Pharsalos, Seriphos. — 
9 Meleager. — 10 Bessalis, Eumelis, Juvenilis, Martialis, Phaselis, Stvmphalis. — 
HBenacus, Caicus, Granlcus, Numicus, Trivicus. — 12 Ophiuchus. — i 3 Abydus. — 
14 Caphareus, Enipeus, Prometheus, Phoroneus, Salmoneus, Oileus. — i&Cethe- 
gus. — 16 A r rt/«es in -clus, in -olus {except iEolus, Naubolus), in -bulus, {except 
Bibulus) Eumelus, Gaetulus, lulus, Massylus, Orbelus, Pharsalus, Sardanapa- 
lus, Stymphalus. — l " Some in -dermis and -phemus; as, Academus, Polyphe- 
mus. — 18 Seriphus. — 19 Alcmena, Athena?, Camena, Fidena, Messena, Murena, 
Mycena?. — ^Amasis. — 21 H6merus, Iberus. — 22 Aratus, Caeratus, Torquatus. — 
^Heraclitus, Hermaphroditus. — 24 Bu.throtus. 

2. Proper names of more than two syllables, found in the poets 
with the following terminations, lengthen the penult : — 

ana, 1 sa, num,7 tas, nus, 12 urus, etus, 16 

ina, 2 ta, 4 turn, des, 9 pus, 13 esus, 15 utus, 

ona, 3 tae, 5 or, 8 tes, 10 irus, isus, ytus, 1 ? 

yna, ene, 6 nas, tis, 11 orus, 14 ysus, vus. 

Exceptions. 

^equana. — 2 Mutina, Proserpina, Euspina, Sarsina. — 3 Axona, Matrona. — 
4 Dalmata, Prochyta, Sarmata, Lapltha. — 5 Galatae, Jaxameta?, Massagetae, 
Macetas, Sauromata*. — sciymene, Helene, Melpomene, Nyctimene. — 7 ArImi- 
num, Drepanum. — 8 Numitor. — 9 Miltiades, Pylades, Sotades, Thucydides; pa- 
tronymics in -des, (§ 291, 4,) and plurals in -ades. — 10 Antiphates, Charites, Eu- 
rybates, Ichnobates, Euergetes, Massagetes, and all names in -crates. — la Der- 
cetis. — 1:2 Apidanus, Aponus, Caranus, Chrysogonus, Ciminus, Clymenus, Con- 
canus, Dardanus, Diadumenus, Earinus, Eridanus, Fucinus, Helenus, Libanus, 
Morini, Myconus, Nebrophonus, Olenus, Periclymenus, Rhodiums, Santonus, 
Sequani, Stephanus, Telegonus, Terminus, and names in -gonus and -xenus. — 
13 (Edipus. — 14 Pacorus, Bosporus, and names in -chorus and -phorus ; as, Stesi- 
ehorus, Phosphorus. — 15 Ephesus, Vogesus, Volesus. — 16 Iapetus, Taygetus, 
Ycnetus.— : LEpytus, Anytus, Eurytus, Hippolytus. 

3. The penultimate vowel of the following proper names, and ad- 
jectives derived from proper names, though followed by a vowel, is 
long. See § 283, I. Exc. 6. 

iEneas, iEthlon, Achelous, Achilleus, Alcyoneus, Alexandria, A15eus, Al- 
pheus, Amineus, Amphiaraus, Amphigenia, Amphion, Amythaon, Arion, An- 
chiseus, Atlanteus, Antiochia, Bioneus, Caasarea, Calaurea, Calliopea, Cassio- 
peia, Cleantheas, Cydoneus, Cymodocea, Cytherea, Darius (-eus), Deidamla, 
Didymaon, Diomedeus, Dolichaon, Echion, Eleus, Endymioneus, Enyo, Euus, 
Erebeus, Erectheus, Galatea, Glganteus, Heraclea (-eus), Hippodamia, Hype- 
rion, llithyia, lmaon, loliius, Iphigenia, Ixion, Laodamia, Latous, Lesbous, 
Lycaon, Machaon, Mausoleum, Medea, Menelaus, Methion, Myrtous, Ophion, 
Orion, Orithyia, Orpheus, Pallanteum (-us), Pandion, Paphagea, Peneus, Pen- 
thesilea, Phoabeus, Poppea, Protesllaus, Pyreneus, Sardous, Thalia. 

Note. Eus in the termination of Greek proper names, is commonly a diph- 
thong; as, Alceus, Gceneiis, Orpheus, Peleus, Perseus, Proteus, Theseus, Tydeus y 
which are diss)ilables; Bridreus, Enipheus, Macdreus, Typhoeus, which are tri- 
syllables, Iddmeneus, etc. Cf. § 2S3, Exc. 6, Note 2. But in those which in 
Greek are written uoc (eios), eus forms two syllables; as, Alpheils. So also in 
adjectives in eus, whether of Greek or Latin origin; as, Erebeus, Erecthras, 
OrpheUs ; aureus, ligneils. 



336 PROSODY. QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. § 294, 295. 

QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 
I. VOWELS. 

MONOSYLLABLES. 

§ 294:. (a.) All monosyllables, except enclitics, ending in a 
vowel, are long ; as, 

a, ah, da, std, e, de, me, te, se, ne, re, i, fi, hi, qui, ni, si, or oh, do, pro, 
jyroh, quo, std, tu. 

POLYSYLLABLES. 

A final. 

1. A final, in words declined, is short ; as, musa, templa, capi- 
ta, Tyded. Thus, 

Musa mihi causas memora; quo numine laeso.... Virg. A. 1, 3. 

Exc. A final is long in the ablative of the first declension, and in 
the vocative of Greek nouns in as and es ; as, 

Musa, fundd ; JEned, Palla, Anchisd. • 

2. A final, in words not. declined, is long; as, amd, frustra y 
anted, ergd, intra. Thus, 

Extra fortanam est quidquid donatur amlcis. Mart. Epig. 5, 42, 7. 

Exc. A final is short in eia, itd, quid, and in putd, when used adverbially, 
in the sense of ' for example.' It is sometimes short in the preposition contra, 
and in numerals ending in ginta ; as, triginta, etc. In postea, it is common. 

A final is also short in the names of Greek letters; as, alpha, beta, etc., and 
in tdrdtantard, the imitated sound of the trumpet. 

E final. 

§ l£D«5. E final, in words of two or more syllables, is short ; 
as, ndte, patre, ipse, curve, regere, nempe, ante. Thus, 

Inctpe, parve puer, risu cognoscertS matrem. Virg. E. 4, 60. 

Remark. The enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -te, -pte, etc., as they are not used 
alone, have e short, according to the rule; as, neque, hujusce, suapte. Gf. 

$ 294, (a.) 

Exc. 1. E final is long in nouns of the first and fifth declensions ; 
as, 

Calliope, Tydide, fide. So also in the compounds of re and die ; as, qudre, 
hddie, pridie, postridie, quotldie, and in the ablative fame, originally of the fifth 
declension. 

Exc. 2. E final is long in Greek vocatives from nouns in -es, of the third 
declension; as, Achille, Eippomene ; and in Greek neuters plural; as, cete, mele, 
pelage, Ttmpe. 

Exc. 3. In the second conjugation, e final is long in the second 
person singular of the imperative active; as, doce, mom ; — but it is 
sometimes short in cave, vale, and vide. 



§ 296-298. prosody. — quantity of final syllables. 337 

Exc. 4. E final is long in adverbs formed from adjectives of the 
second declension ; as, 

pldcide, pulchre, valde for vdlide, maxime ; but it is short in bene, male, inferne, 
and superne. 

Exc. 5. Fere, ferrae, and ohe, have the final e long. 

I final. 

§390. /final is long; as, domini, fill, classl, doceri, si. 
Thus, 

Quid ddmlnl facient, audent cum talia f Ores. Virg. E. 3, 16. 

Exc. 1. (a.) /final is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, xbi, and iibi. 

(6.) In ubique and commonly in ibidem it is long, but in ubivis and ubinam it 
is short. — (c.) In nisi, quasi, and cui, when a dissyllable, i final is common, 
but usually short. In utinam and utique, and rarely, also, in uti, it is short. 

Exc. 2. /final is short in the dative singular of Greek nouns of the third de- 
clension, which increase in the genitive; as, Pallddi, Mindidi, T ethyl. 

Exc. 3. / final is short in the vocative of Greek nouns in -is ; as, Alexi, 
Daphni, Pari. But it is long in vocatives from Greek nouns in -is, (us) -entos; 
as, Shnoi, Pyroi. 

Exc. 4. / final is short in Greek datives and ablatives plural in -si, or, be- 
fore a vowel, -sin ; as, Dryasi, heroisi, Trodsin. 

O final. 

§ SOT. final, in words of two or more syllables, is com- 
mon ; as, virgo, amo, quando. Thus, 

Ergd metu capita Scylla est lnlmlca paterno. Virg. Cir. 386. 
Ergo solllcltse tu causa, pecunia, vltae es ! Prop. 3, 5, 1. 

Exc. 1. final is long in the dative and ablative singular; as, ddmino, regno, 
bond, suo, Hid, to. 

Exc. 2. final is long in ablatives used as adverbs ; as, certd, falso, merilo, 
ndyo, eo, quo ; and also in omnino, in ergo, ' for the sake of,' and in the inter- 
jection id. 

Kemark 1. The final o of verbs is almost always long in poets of the Augus- 
tan age. 

Eem. 2. In poets subsequent to the Augustan age, final o in verbs, in ge- 
runds, and in the adverbs ddeo, ideo, ergo, sero, vero, porro, retro, immo, idcirco, 
subito, and postremo, is sometimes short. 

Exc. 3. final is short in cito, illico, prdfecto, and the compounds of mddo; 
as, dummddo, postnwdo, etc. ; and in ego and hdmo it is more frequently short 
than long. 

Exc. 4. final in Greek nouns written with an omega (a) is long; as, Clio, 
Dido, Atho, and Androged, (gen.) 

U final. 

§ 298. 1. U final is long; as, vultu, cornu, Panthu, dictu, 
diu. Thus, 

Vultu, quo coelum tempestatesque serSnat. Vir%. A. 1, 256. 
29 



338 PROSODY. — QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. § 299. 

Exc. Indu and nSnii, ancient forms of in and non, have « short. U is also 
short in terminations in us short, when s is removed by elision; as, contents, 
for contentus. See § 305, 2. 

Y final. 
2. Y final is short ; as, Moly, Tlphy. Thus, 

Moly vScant superi : nigra radlce tenetur. Ovid. M. 14, 292. 
Exc. Fin the dative Tethy, being formed by contraction, is long. § 283, HI. 

II. CONSONANTS. 
MONOSYLLABLES. 

§ 200. 1. Monosyllabic substantives ending in a consonant 
are long; all other monosyllables ending in a consonant are 
short; as, 

sol, vir, fur, jus, splen, ver, far, lar, Ndr, par, Ser, fur, fas, mas, res, pes, 
Dis, glls, lis, vis, Jlos, mos, ros, Tros, 6s, (oris), dos, grus, rus, tus ; — nee, in, an, db, 
ad, quid, quis, quot, et; as, 

Ipse docet quid agam. Fas est Zt ab hoste doceri. Ovid. M. 4, 428. 
Ver adeo frondi nemorum, ver utile silvis. Virg. G. 2, 323. 

Note. The rules for the quantity of final syllables ending in a consonant 
imply that the consonant is single, and that it is preceded by a single vowel. 
If otherwise the syllable will be long by § 283, IV. and II. 

Exc. 1. Cdr, fel, mel, p6l, vir, ds (gen. ossis), and probably vas (vddis), are 
short. 

Exc. 2. En, non, quin, sin, eras, plus, cur, and par, are long: so also are 
particles and pronouns ending in c, except nee, which is short, and the pro- 
nouns hie and hoc, in the nominative and accusative, which are common. 

Exc. 3. Monosyllabic plural cases of pronouns and forms of verbs in as, es, 
and is, are long ; as, h as, quds, hos, nos, vos, quos, his, quis; — das, jles, stcs, is y 
fls, sis, vis ; except es from sum which is short. 

Exc. 4. The abridged imperatives retain the quantity of their root ; as, die, 
due, from dlco, duco ; fdc, fer, from fdcio, fero. 

POLYSYLLABLES. 

D, L,, N, R, T, final 

2. Final syllables ending in d, I, n, r, and t, are short ; as, 
ittud, consul, carmen, pater, caput. Thus, 

Obstupuit simul ipse, simul perculsus Achates. Virg. A. 1, 513. 

Nomin Arlonium Siculaa implcvSrdt urbes. Ovid. F. 2, 93. 

Dum IdquSr, horrdr, habet ; parsque est memlnisse doloris. Id. M. 9, 291. 

Exc. 1. E in lien is long. 

Exc. 2. In Greek nouns, nominatives in n (except those in on, 
written with an omicron), masculine or feminine accusatives in an or 
en, and genitives plural in on, lengthen the final syllable ; as, 

Titan, Orion, JEnedn, Anchlsen, Calliopen ; eplgrammdtan. 






§ 300. PROSODY. — QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 339 

Exc. 3. Aer, (Ether, and nouns in er which form their genitive in 
eris, lengthen the final syllable ; as, 

crater, soter. So also Iber; but the compound Celttber has sometimes in 
Martial its last syllable short. 

Remark. A final syllable ending in t, may be rendered long by a diphthong, 
by contraction, by syncopation, or by position ; as, aut, abit for abiit, fumdt, 
for fumdvit, dmant. See § 283, II. III. IV., and § 162, 7, (rf.) 

M final. 

Note. Final m with the preceding vowel is almost always cut off, when 
the next word begins with a vowel. See Ecthlipsis, § 305, 2. 

3. Final syllables ending in m, when it is not cut off, are short ; 

as, 

Quam laudas, pluma? cocto num. adest honor Idem. Hor. S. 2, 2, 28. 

Remark. Hence in composition the final syllables of cum and circum are 
short; as, c&medo, circumdgo. 

C final. 

4. Final syllables ending in c are long ; as, alec, illic, istdc y 
illuc. Thus, 

Illic indocto prlmum se exercuit arcu. Tib. 2, 1, 69. 
Exc. The final syllable of donee is short; as, 

DdnSc eris felix, multos numerabis amlcos. Ovid. Trist. 1, 9, 5. 

AS, ES, and OS, final. 
§ 300. Final syllables in as, es, and os, are long ; as, 

musds, pietds, am/is, JEneds, quies, sermones, dies, jPeneldpes, ducenties, mdnes, 
hdnos, virus, ddminos. Thus, 

Has autem terras, Itallque hanc litoris oram. Virg. A. 3, 396. 
Si modo de*s illis cultus, similesque paratus. Ovid. M. 6. 454. 

Exc. 1. (a.) AS. As is short in anas, in Greek nouns whose genitive ends 
in ddis or ados; a?, Areas, Pallas; and in Greek accusatives plural of the third 
declension ; as, herods, lampddds. 

{b.) As is short also in Latin nouns in as, ados, formed like Greek patronym- 
ics; as, Appids. 

Exc. 2. ES. (a.) Final es is short in nouns and adjectives of the 
third declension which increase short in the genitive; as, Jiospes, 
limes, hebes ; gen. hospilis, etc. 

(b.) But it is long in dbies, dries, paries, CSres, and pes, with its compounds 
coiviipts, sdnipes, etc. 

(c.) Es, in the present tense of sum and its compounds, and in the preposr- 
tion penes, is short. 

(d.) Es is short in Greek neuters in es; as, cacoethes, and in Greek nomina- 
tives and vocatives plural from nouns of the third declension, which increase 
in the genitive ; as, Arcades, Trdes, Amazdnes ; from Areas, Arcddis, etc. 

Exc. 3. OS. (a.) Os is short in compds, impds, and 6s (ossis), with its com- 
pound exds. 



340 PROSODY. QUANTITY OP FINAL SYLLABLES. § 301. 

(b.) Os is short in Greek nouns and cases written in the original with omi- 
cron; as(l) in all neuters; as, chads, epds, Argds; (2) in all nouns of the second 
declension; as, Ilios, Tyrds, Detts; except those whose genitive is in 6, (Greek 
»); as, Athos, gen. Aiho ; (3) in genitives singular of the third declension; as, 
Pallddds, Tethyds, from Pallas and Tethys. 

IS, US, and YS, final 

§ 301* Final syllables in is, us, and ys, are short ; as, 

turrts, mllitis, mitis, dmdtis, arnabis, mdgis ; pectus, bdnus, ejus, dmdmus, rursus, 
tenus; Capys, Itys. Thus, 

Non apis inde tulit collector sedula flores. Ovid. M. 13, 928. 
SSrius aut cltius sedem properamus ad Onani. Id. M. 10, 33. 
At Capys, et quorum melior sententia menti. Virg. A. 2, 35. 

Exc. 1. IS. (a.) 7s is long in plural cases ; as, 

musls, nobis ; omnls, urbis, (for omnes, urbes) ; quls, (for quels or quibus). So 
also in the adverbs gratis, ingratis, and /oris, which are in reality datives or 
ablatives plural. 

Et liquldi simul ignis ; ut his exordia prlmls. Virg. A. 6, 33. 

Quls ante ora patrum Trojae sub moenlbus altis. Id. A. 1, 95. 

Non omnls arbusta juvant, humilesque myrlcae. Id. E. 4, 2. 

Adde tot egregias urbls, Sperumque laborem. Id. G. 2, 155. 

(b.) Is is long in the nominative of nouns whose genitive ends in His, Inis, or 
entis; as, Samnis, Sdldmls, Simois. 

(c.) 7s is long in the second person singular of the present indica- 
tive active of the fourth conjugation ; as, 

audis, nescls. So also in the second persons, fls, is, sis, vis, veils, and their 
compounds ; as, adsis, possls, quamvls, malls, noils, etc. Cf. § 299, 1, Exc. 3. 

(d.) Bis, in the future perfect and perfect subjunctive, is common; as, 
inderis. 

Exc. 2. US. (a.) Us is long in nouns of the third declension which 
increase long, and in the genitive singular, and the nominative, ac- 
cusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension, (§ 89, Rem., 
and § 283, HI.) ; as, 

tellus, virtus, incus ;—fruclus. But pdlus, with the us short, occurs in Horace, 
Art. Poet. 65. 

(b.) Us is long in Greek nouns written in the original with the diphthong ous 
(oSj)whether in the nominative or genitive; as, nom. Amdthus, Opus, CEdipus, 
tripiis, Panthus; gen. Didus, Sapphus. But compounds of pus (Trove), when of 
the second declension, have us short; as, polypus. 

Note. The last syllable of every verse, (except the anapaestic and 
the Ionic a minor e), may be either long or short at the option of the 
poet. 

Remark. By this is meant, that, although the measure require a long syl- 
lable, a short one may be used in its stead; and a long syllable may be used 
where a short one is required; as in the following verses, where the short syl- 
lable ma stands instead of a long one, and the long syllable cu instead of" a 
short one : — 

SanguTneaque manu crepltantia concutit arw3. Ovid. M. 1, 143. 
Non eget Mauri jaculls, nee arcu. Hor. Od. 1, 22, 2. 



§302. 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION — FEET. 



341 



VERSIFICATION. 
FEET. 

§ 302. A foot is a combination of two or more syllables of 
a certain quantity. 

Feet are either simple or compound. Simple feet consist of two 
or three syllables ; compound feet of four. 

I. SIMPLE FEET. 
1. Of two Syllables. 

Spondee, two long, ; as, .fundunt. 

Pyrrhic, two short, >- v^; as, Deus. 

Trochee, or choree, a long and a short, — >— ; as, arma. 

Iambus, a short and a long, — - — ; as, erdnt. 

2. Of three Syllables. 

Dactyl, a long and two short, — v_, ^; as, corpdrd. 

Anapaest, two short and a long, ^ ^ — ; as, ddmini. 

Tribrach, three short, >-* ^ -^ ; as, fdcere. 

Mohssus, three long, ; as, cdntendunt. 

Amphibrach, a short, a long, and a short, -^ — w ; as, . .amare. 

Amphimdcrus, or Cretic,a, long, a short, and a long, — ^ — ; as, . .cdstitds. 

Bacchius, a short and two long, w ; as, Cdtones. 

Antibacchius, two long and a short, s_ ; as, Rdmdnus. 

II. COMPOUND FEET. 



Dispondee, a double spondee, 

Proceleusmatic, a double Pyrrhic, ^ -^ -^ 

Ditrochee, a double trochee, — ^ — 

Diiambus, a double iambus, -~* — ^ 

Greater Ionic, a spondee and a Pyrrhic, - 

Smaller Ionic, a Pyrrhic and a spondee, • 

Choriambus, a choree and an iambus, ■ 

Antispast, an iambus and a choree, • 

First epitrit, an iambus and a spondee, ■ 

Second epitrit, a trochee and a spondee, - 

Third epitrit, a spondee and an iambus, - 

Fourth epitrit, a spondee and a trochee, - 

First pceon, a trochee and a Pyrrhic, 

Second pceon, an iambus and a Pyrrhic 

Third pceon, a Pyrrhic and a trochee, 

Fourth pceon, a Pyrrhic and an iambus 



— ; as, conflfxerunt. 

>-^ ; as, hOminibus. 

•-' ; as, comprdbdvit. 

— ; as, dmdverant. 

^ ^ ; as, . . .correximtis. 

-" *-* ; as,. . .prdperubdnt. 

— ^ -^ — ; as, . . . terrlf leant. 

. ddhcestsse. 

.amaverunt. 

.cdnditvres. 

. discordids. 

. ddduxistis. 

. tempdribus. 
as, . . . pdtentid. 
as,. . .dnimdtus. 
as, . . . celeritds. 



-^ >-* ; as, , 

>-^ ; as,, 

— ~ ; as,. 

w— ; as,, 

—; as,. 

— -^ v_ >_, ; as. 



Remark. Those feet are called isochronous, which consist of equal times; 
as the spondee, the dactyl, the anapaest, and the proceleusmatic, one long time 
being considered equal to two short. 

29* 



342 PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION — METRE — VERSES. § 303, 304. 

METRE. 

§ 303. 1. Metre is an arrangement of syllables and feet 
according to certain rules. 

2. In this general sense, it comprehends either an entire verse, a part of a 
verse, or any number of verses. 

3. Metre is divided into dactylic, anapcestic, iambic, trochaic, chori- 
ambic, and Ionic. These names are derived from the original or 
fundamental foot employed -in each. 

4. A metre or measure, in a specific sense, is either a single foot, 
or a combination of two feet. In the dactylic, choriambic, and Ionic 
metres, a measure consists of one foot ; in the other metres, of two 
feet. Two feet constituting a measure are sometimes called a syzygy. 

VERSES. 

§ 304:. A verse is a certain number of feet, arranged in a 
regular order, and constituting a line of poetry. 

1. Two verses are called a distich; a half verse, a hemistich. 

2. Verses are of different kinds, denominated sometimes, like the 
different species of metre, from the foot, which chiefly predominates 
in them ; as, dactylic, iambic, etc. ; — sometimes from the number of 
feet or metres which they contain ; as, senarius, consisting of six feet ; 
octonarius, of eight feet ; monometer, consisting of one measure ; dime- 
ter, of two ; trimeter, tetrameter, 'pentameter, hexameter ; — sometimes 
from a celebrated author who used a particular species ; as, Sapphic, 
Anacreontic, Alcaic, Asclepiadic, Glyconic, Phalcecian, Sotadic, Archi- 
lochian, Alcmanian, Pherecratic, Aristophanic, etc., from Sappho, Ana- 
creon, Alcceus, Asclepiades, Glycon, Phalcecus, Sotades, Archilochus, 
Alcman, Pherecrdtes, Aristophanes, etc. — and sometimes from the 
particular uses to which they were applied ; as, the prosodiac, from 
its use in solemn processions, the parozmiac, from its frequent use in 
proverbs. 

3. A verse, with respect to the metres which it contains, may be 
complete, deficient, or redundant. 

(1.) A verse which is complete is called acatalectic. 

(2.) A verse which is deficient, if it wants one syllable at the end, 
is called catalectic ; if it wants a whole foot or half a metre, it is 
called brachy catalectic. 

(3.) A verse which wants a syllable at the beginning, is called 
acephalous. 

(4.) A verse which has a redundant syllable or foot, is called 
hyper catalectic or hypermeter. 

4. Hence, the complete name of every verse consists of three 
terms — the first referring to the species, the second to the number of 
metres, and the third to the ending ; as, the dactylic trimeter catalectic. 



§ 305. PROSODY. VERSIFICATION — FIGURES. 343 

5. A verse or portion of a verse of any kind (measured from the 
beginning) which contains three half feet, or a foot and a half, is 
called a trihemimeris ; if it contains five half feet, or two feet and a 
half, it is called a penthemimeris ; if seven half feet, or three feet and 
a half, a hepthemimeris ; if nine half feet, or four feet and a half, an 
ennehemimeris. A portion of a verse consisting of one whole metre 
and a half, is called a hemiolius, as being the half of a trimeter. 

Note. The respective situation of each foot in a verse is called its place. 

6. Scanning is the dividing of a verse into the feet of which it is 
composed. 

Remark. In order to scan correctly, it is necessary to know the quantity 
of each syllable, and also to understand the following poetic usages, which are 
sometimes called 

FIGURES OF PROSODY. 
SYNALCEPHA. 

§ 30*>. 1. Synaloepha is the elision of a final vowel or 
diphthong in scanning, when the following word begins with a 
vowel. 

Thus, terra antiqua is read terr" 1 antlqua; Darddnidai infensi, Dardanid 1 in- 
fensi; vento hue, venC hue. So, 

Quidve moror? si omnes uno ordlne habetis Achlvos. Virg. A. 2, 102. 
Which is scanned thus — 

Quidve moror ? s' omnes un' ordin' habetis Achlvos. 

(1.) The interjections 0, heu, ah, proh, vce, vah, are not elided; 

as, 

et de Latia, O et de gente Sabina. Ovid. M. 14, 832. 
Remark. But 0, though not elided, is sometimes made short ; as, 
Te Cor) don O Alexi ; trahit sua quemque voluptas. Virg. E. 2, 65. 

(2.) Other long vowels and diphthongs sometimes remain unelided, in which 
case, when in the thesis of a foot, they are commonly made short; as, 
Victor apud rapldum Slmoenta sub IliS alto. Virg. A. 5, 261. 
Anni tempore eo rjui Etesicp, esse feruntur. Lucr. 6, 717. 
Ter sunt conatl imponere Pclid Ossam. Virg. G. 1, 281. 
Glauco et Pdnopece, et Inoo Mellcertae. Id. G. 1, 436. 

(3.) Rarely a short vowel, also, remains without elision; as, 

Et vera incessu patuit de&. Hie ubi matrem.... Virg. A. 1, 405. 

(4.) Synaloepha in a monosyllable occasionally occurs ; as, 

Si ad vitulam spectas, nibil est, quod pocula laudes. Virg. E. 3, 48. 

For synaloepha at the end of a line, see Synapheia, § 307, 3. 

ECTHLIPSIS. 

2. Ecthlipsis is the elision of a final m with the preceding 
vowel, when the following word begins with a vowel. Thus, 

O curae homlnum, quantum est in rgbus Inane! Pers. 1, 1. 



344 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION FIGURES. § 306. 

Which is thus scanned— 

cflras homin' quant' est in retros inane. 
Monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens, cui lumen ademptum. Virg. A. 3, 658. 
(1.) This elision was sometimes omitted by the early poets; as, 

CorpSrum officium est quoniam premere omnia deoisum. Lucr. 1, 363. 

See § 299, 2. 
(2.) Final s, also, with the preceding vowel, is sometimes elided by the 
early poets before a vowel, and sometimes s alone before a consonant ; as, con- 
tent* atque (Enn.), for contentus atque; omnibu 1 rebus. (Lucr.) So, 
Turn latSraW dolor, certissimu' nuncvu? mortis. LucU. 
Remark. This elision took place principally in short syllables. 
For ecthlipsis at the end of a line, see Synapheia, § 307, 3. 

SYNTHESIS. 

§ 300. 1. Synaeresis is the contraction into one syllable 
of two vowels which are usually pronounced separately. Thus, 

Aured. percussum YirgaL, versumque venenis. Virg. A. 7, 190. 
Eosdem habuit secum, quibus est elata, capillos. Prop. 4, 7, 7. 
Tltyre, pascentes a flumlne reice capellas. Virg. E. 3, 96. 

Remark 1. So Phaethon is pronounced Phcethon ; alveo, alvo; Orphea, 
Orpha ; deorsum, dorsum. 

(1.) Synaeresis is frequent in », ildem, iisdem, dii, diis, dein, deinceps, deinde, 
deest, deerat, deero, deent, deesse; as, 

Praecipitatur aquis, et aquis nox surgit ab isdem. Ovid. M. 4, 92. 
Sint Maecenases ; non deerunt, Flacce, Mar5nes. Mart. 8, 56, 5. 

Rem. 2. Cui and huic are usually monosyllables. 

(2.) When two vowels in compound words are read as one syllable, the 
former may rather be considered as elided than as united with the latter; as, 
e in anteambulo, anleire, antehac, dehinc, mehercule, etc., and a in contralre. 

(3.) The syllable formed by the union of i or u followed by another vowel 
retains the quantity of the latter vowel, whether long or short ; as, dbiete, ariete, 
abiegnce, pd?netibus, consilium, fortuitus, Ndsldienus, vindemidtor, omnia ; genua, 
tenuis, pituita, fluviorum, etc. In such examples, the i and u are pronounced 
like initial y and w; as, dbyete, pdryetibus, consilyum, fortvntus, Ndstdyenus, 
omn-yd, tenwis, pilwlta, etc. ; and, like consonants, they have, with another 
consonant, the power of lengthening a preceding short vowel, as in the above 
examples. 

Note. In Statius, the word tenuiore occurs as a trisyllable, in which the 
three vowels, uio, are united in pronunciation; thus, ten-wio-re. 

(4.) Sometimes, after a synaloepha or echthlipsis, two vowels suffer synaere- 
sis ; as, stellio et, pronounced stell-yet : consilium et, — consil-yet. 

(5.) If only one of the vowels is written, the contraction is called crasis ; as, 
di, consili, for dii, consilii. 

DIURESIS. 

2. Diceresis is the division of one syllable into two ; as, 

auldl, Trdla, siltia, suddent ; for aulce, Troia or Troja, silva, suddent. So, 
sutsco for suesco; riliqu&s for reliquus; ecqilis for ecquis ; milMs for milvus, etc., 
as, 






§ 307. PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION FIGURES. 345 

JEthereum sensum, atque aurai sirapllcis igncm. Virg. A. 6. 747. 
Atque alios alii irrldent, Venerenique suadent. Liter. 4, 1153. 
Grammatici certant; et adhuc sub indite lis est. Hor. A. P. 78. 
Aurarum et siluee metu. Id. 0. 1, 23, 4. 

(1.) So in Greek words originally written with a diphthong («or»;); as, 
ilegeia for elegia, Bacchiid for Bacchea, Rhasteius for RhoBteus, Pleids for Pllds: 
and also in words of Latin origin ; as, Veius for Veius, Aquileid for Aquileid. 

Remark. This figure is sometimes called dialysis. 

SYSTOLE. 

§ 307. 1. Systole is the shortening of a syllable which is 
long by nature or by position ; as, 

vtde'n for videsne, in which e is naturally long; sdtVn for sdtisne, in which i is 
long by position ; — hddie for hoc die ; mullimodis for rnultls mddis. So, 
Ducere multtmSdis voces, et flectere cantus. Liter. 5, 1405. 

(1.) By the omission of j after ab, ad, 6b, sub, and re, in compound words, 
those prepositions retain their naturally short quantity, which would otherwise 
be made long by position; as, dbici, ddicit, dbicis, etc. Thus, 

Si quid nostra tuis adlcit vexatio rebus. Mart. 10, 82, 1. 

Remark. In some compounds the short quantity of ad and db is preserved 
before a consonant by the elision of the d or b of the preposition, as in djperio, 
Operio, dmitto, etc. 

(2.) The penult of the third person plural of certain perfects is said by 
Borne to be shortened by systole ; as, steterunt, tulerunt, etc. ; but others ascribe 
these irregularities to the errors of transcribers, or the carelessness of writers. 

DIASTOLE. 

2. Diastole is the lengthening of a syllable which is naturally 
short. 

(1.) It occurs most frequently in proper names and in compounds of re; as, 
Pridmides, religio, etc. Thus, 

Hanc tibi Priamides mitto, Ledsea, salutem. Ovid. H. 16, 1. 
Rettgiune patrum multos servata per annos. Virg. A. 2, 715. 

(2.) Some editors double the consonant after the lengthened re; as, relligio. 
(3.) Diastole is sometimes called ectdsis. 

S Y N A P H E I A . 

3. Synapheia is such a connection of two consecutive verses, 
that the first syllable of the latter verse has an influence on the 
final syllable of that which precedes, either by position, synaloe- 
pha, or ecthlipsis. See §§ 283 and 305. 

(1.) This figure is most frequent in anapaestic verse, and in the Ionic a 
mindre. 

The following lines will illustrate its effect: — 

Praeceps silvas montesque fuglt 

Citus ActcEon. Sen. 

Here the t in the final syllable of fugit, which is naturally short, is made long 
by position before the following consonants, tc. 



346 PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION — ARSIS AND THESIS. § 308. 

Omnia Mercurio slmilis, vocemque colorem§u« 
Et crlnes flayos.... Virg. A. 4, 558. 
Dissidens plebi numero beatorwm 
Exlmit virtus. Hor. 0. 2, 2, 18. 

In the former of these examples, synapheia and synalcepha are combined, que 
being elided before et in the following line ; in the latter there is a similar 
combination of synapheia and ecthlipsis. 

(2.) By synapheia, the parts of a compound word are sometimes divided be- 
tween two verses ; as, 

.... si non offenderet unum- 
Quemgue poetarum llmae labor et mora... Hor. A. P. 290. 

(3.) In hexameter verse a redundant syllable at the end of a line elided be- 
fore a vowel at the beginning of the next line, by causing the accent to fall on 
the second syllable of the concluding spondee, and connecting the two verses 
by synapheia, excites the expectation of something which is to follow, and 
often tends to magnify the object; as, 

Quos super- | -atra si- | -lex, jam- J -jam lap- | -sura ca- | -denti- | -que 

Immlnet assimilis. Virg. A. 6, 602. 

Eemakk. The poets often make use of other figures, also, which, however, 
are not peculiar to them. Such are prosthesis, apharesis, syncope, epenihesis, 
apocope, paragoge, tmesis, antithesis, and metathesis. See § 322. 

ARSIS AND THESIS. 

§ SOS. (1.) Rhythm is the alternate elevating and depress- 
ing of the voice at regular intervals in pronouncing the syllables 
of verse. 

(2.) The elevation of the voice is called arsis, its depression thesis. 
These terms designate, also, the parts of a foot on -which the eleva- 
tion or depression falls. 

1. The natural arsis is on the long syllable of a foot ; and hence, 
in a foot composed wholly of long, or wholly of short syllables, when 
considered in itself, the place of the arsis is undetermined ; but when 
such foot is substituted for the fundamental foot of a metre, its arsis is 
determined by that of the latter. 

Remark. Hence, a spondee, in trochaic or dactylic metre, has the arsis on 
the first syllable; but in iambic or anapasstic metre, it has it on the last. 

2. The arsis is either equal in duration to the thesis, or twice as 
long. 

Thus, in the dactyl, — •—• •—-, and anapsest, w ^ — , it is equal ; in the tro- 
chee, — «~^, and iambus, ^ — , it is twice as long. This difference in the pro- 
portionate duration of the arsis and thesis constitutes the difference of rhythm. 
A foot is said to have the descending rhythm, when its arsis is at the beginning, 
and the ascending, when the thesis is at the beginning. 

8. The stress of voice which falls upon the arsis of a foot, is called 
the ictus. When a long syllable in the arsis of a foot is resolved into 
two short ones, the ictus falls upon the former. 

Note 1. Some suppose that the terms arsis and thesis, as used by the an- 
cients, denoted respectively the rising and falling of the hand in beating time, 
and that the place of the thesis was the syllable which received the ictus. 



§ 309, 310. PROSODY. VERSIFICATION DACTYLIC METRE. 347 

Note 2. As the ancient pronunciation of Latin is not now understood, 
writers differ in regard to the mode of reading verse. According to some, the 
accent of each word should always be preserved ; while others direct that the 
stress of voice should be laid on the arsis of the foot, and that no regard should 
be paid to the accent. 

It is generally supposed that the final letters elided by synalcepha and ecth- 
lipsis, though omitted in scanning, were pronounced in reading verse. 

cj:sura. 

§ 300. Ccesura is the separation, by the ending of a word, 
of syllables rhythmically or metrically connected. 

Caesura is of three kinds: — 1, of the foot; 2, of the rhythm; and 3, 
of the verse. 

1. Caesura of the foot occurs when a word ends before a foot is 
completed ; as, 

Silves- | -trem tenu- | -i Mu- | -sam medi- | -taris a- | -vena. Virg. E. 1, 2. 

2. Caesura of the rhythm is the separation of the arsis from the 
thesis by the ending of a word, as in the second, third, and fourth 
feet of the preceding verse. 

Rem 1. It hence appears that the caesura of the rhythm is always a caesura 
of the foot, as e. g. in the 2d, 3d, and 4th feet of the preceding verse ; but, on 
the contrary, that the caesura of the foot is not always a caesura of the rhythm, 
as e. g. in the fifth foot of the same verse. 

(1.) Caesura of the rhythm allows a final syllable naturally short, 
to stand in the arsis of the foot instead of a long one, it being length- 
ened by the ictus ; as, 

Pectorl- | -bus Inhi- | -ans spl- | -rantla | consullt | exta. Virg. A. 4, 64. 
This occurs chiefly in hexameter verse. 

Rem. 2. Caesura of the foot and of the verse do not of themselves lengthen a 
short syllable, but they often coincide with that of the rhythm. 

3. Caesura of the verse is such a division of a line into two parts, 
as affords to the voice a convenient pause or rest, without injury to 
the sense or harmony. 

Rem. 3. The caesura of the verse is often called the ccesural pause. In sev- 
eral kinds of verse, its place is fixed ; in others, it may fall in more than one 
place, and the choice is left to the poet. Of the former kind is the pentameter, 
of the latter the hexameter. 

The proper place of the csesural pause will be treated of, so far as shall he necessary, 
under each species of Terse. 

Rem. 4. The effect of the caesura is to connect the different words har- 
moniously together, and thus to give smoothness, grace, and sweetness, to the 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 

DACTYLIC METRE. 

§ 310. I. A hexameter or heroic verse consists of six feet. 
Of these the fifth is a dactyl, the sixth a spondee, and each of 
the other four either a dactyl or a spondee ; as, 



348 PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION — DACTYLIC METRE. § 310. 

At tubSl I terribi- | -lem soni- | -tam procul | aere ca- | -noro. Virg. A. 9, 503. 
Inton- | -si crl- | -n5s Ion- | -ga c5r- | -vice flu- | Sbant. Tibull. 3, 4, 27. 
Ludere | qujg vel- | -lem cala- | -mo p5r- | -mlslt a- | -grSstl. Virg. E. 1, 10. 

1. The fifth foot is sometimes a spondee, and the verse in such 
case is called spondaic ; as, 

Cara de- | -um sobo- | -les mag- | -num Jovls | Incre- | -mentum. Virg. E. 4, 49. 

Remark 1. In such verses, the fourth foot is commonly a dactyl, and the 
fifth should not close with the end of a word. Spondaic lines are thought to 
be especially adapted to the expression of grave and solemn subjects. 

2. A light and rapid movement is produced by the frequent recur- 
rence of dactyls ; a slow and heavy one by that of spondees ; as, 

Quadrupe- | -daDte pu- | -trem soni- | -tu quatit | ungfila. | campum. Virg. A. 8, 596. 
Illi in- | -ter se- | -se mag- | -na vl | brachia tollunt. Id. A. 8, 452. 

Rem. 2. Variety in the use of dactyls and spondees in successive lines, has 
an agreeable effect. Hexameter verse commonly ends in a word of two or 
three syllables, and a monosyllable at the end of a line is generally ungraceful, 
but sometimes produces a good effect; as, 

Sternltur, | exam- | -mlsque, tre- | -mens pro- | -cumblt hu- | -mi b5s. Virg. A. 5, 481. 

Parturl- | -unt m5n- | -tes : nas- j -cetur | rldlcu- j -lQs mus. Hor. A. P. 139. 

3. The beauty and harmony of hexameter verse depend much on due at- 
tention to the caesura. (See § 309.) A line in which it is neglected is destitute 
of poetic beauty, and can hardly be distinguished from prose ; as, 

Roma; | moenia | terruit [ Impiger | Hannibal | armls. Enn. 

4. The csesural pause most approved in heroic poetry is that which 
occurs after the penthemimeris, i. e. after the arsis in the third foot. 
This is particularly distinguished as the heroic ccesura. Thus, 

At domus | Interi- | -or || re- | -gall | splendida | luxu. Virg. A. 1, 637. 

5. Instead of the preceding, a caesura in the thesis of the third 
foot, or after the arsis of the fourth, was also approved as heroic ; as, 

Infan- | -dum re- | -gina || ju- | -bes reno- | -Tare do- | -lorem. Virg. A. 2, 3. 
Inde to- | -ro pater | 2Ene- | -as || sic | orsus ab | alto. Id. A. 2, 2. 



Rem. 3. When the caesural pause occurs, as in the latter example, after the 
Jtephthemimeris, i. e. after the arsis of the fourth foot, another but slighter one is 
often found in the second foot ; as, 
Prima, te- | -net, || plau- | -siique vo- | -lat || fremi- | -tuque se- | -cundo. Virg. A. 5, 338. 

6. The caesura after the third foot, dividing the verse into exactly 
equal parts, was least approved ; as, 

Cui non | diet us Hy- | -las puer || et La- | -tonia | Delos. Virg. G. 3, 6. 

Rem. 4. The caesura! pause between the fourth and fifth feet was considered 
as peculiarly adapted to pastoral poetiy, particularly when the fourth foot was 
a dactyl, and was hence termed the bucolic cassnra ; as, 

Stant vitu- | -li et tene- | -ris mu- | -gltibus || aera. | complent. Nemes. 

Note 1. The caesura after the arsis is sometimes called the masculine or 
syllabic caesura; that in the thesis, the feminine or trochaic, as a trochee imme- 
diately precedes. When a caesura occurs in the fifth foot it is usually the 
trochaic caesura, unless the foot is a spondee ; as, 

Fraxinus | In sll- | -vis pul- | -cherrima, | plniis in | hortls. Virg. E. 7, 65. 

(a.) It is to be remarked that two successive trochaic caesuras in the second 
and third feet are, in general, to be avoided, but they are sometimes employed 
to express irregular or impetuous motion ; as, 



j 



§ 311. PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION DACTYLIC METRE. 349 

Tina Eu- | -rusqui N5- | -tusquS ru- | -unt ere- | -berque" pro- | -cellls. Virg. A. 1, 85. 

(b.) Successive trochaic caesuras are, in like manner, to be avoided in the third 
and fourth feet, but are approved in the first and second, in the fourth and 
fifth, and in the first, third and fifth. See Virg. A. 6, 651: 1, 94: and 6, 522. 

Note 2. In the principal caesura of the verse poets frequently introduce a 
pause in the sense, which must be attended to in order to determine the place 
of the caesural pause. For in the common place for the caesura in the third 
foot there is often a caesura of the foot ; while, in the fourth foot, a still more 
marked division occurs. In this case, the latter is to be considered as the 
principal caesura, and distinguished accordingly; as, 

Belli | ferra- | -tos pos- | -tea, || por- | -tasque - re- | -frggit. Hor. S. 1, 4, 61. 

II. The Priapean is usually accounted a species of hexameter. It 
is so constructed as to be divisible into two portions of three feet each, 
having generally a trochee in the first and fourth place, but often a 
spondee and rarely a dactyl ; in the second, usually a dactyl ; and 
an amphimacer and more rarely a dactyl in the third ; as, 

co- | -lSnla | quS cupls || ponte'| ludere | longo. Catull, 17, 1. 

It is, however, more properly considered as choriambic metre, consisting of 
alternate Glyconics and Pherecratics. See § 316, IV. V. Thus, 
O* co- | -Ionia, quae | cupis 
Ponte | ludere Ion- | -go. 

Note. A regular hexameter verse is termed Priapean, when it is so con- 
structed as to be divisable into two portions of three feet each ; as, 

Tertla | pars pa- | -tri data || pars data | tertla | matrl. Catull. 62, 64- 
See above, 6. 

§ 311. III. A pentameter verse consists of five feet. 

Remark 1. It is generally, however, divided, in scanning, into 
two hemistichs, the first consisting of two feet, either dactyls or spon- 
dees, followed by a long syllable ; the last, of two dactyls, also fol- 
lowed by a long syllable ; as, 

Natu- | -rae sequi- | -tur || semlna | quisque su- [-S. Prop. 3, 7, 20. 
Carmlni- | -bus vl- | -ves || tempus In | omne me- | -Is. Ovid. 

1. According to the more ancient and correct mode of scanning 
pentameter verse, it consists of five feet, of which the first and second 
may each be a dactyl or a spondee ; the third is always a spondee ; 
and the fourth and fifth are anapaests ; as, 

Natu- I -rS sequi- | -tur || sem- | -Ina quls- | -que sSS. 
Carmlni- | -bus vl- | -ves || tern- | -pus In 6m- | -ne mels. 

2. The caesura, in pentameter verse, always occurs after the pen- 
themimeris, i. e. at the close of the first hemistich. It very rarely 
lengthens a short syllable. 

3. The pentameter rarely ends with a word of three syllables. In Ovid, it 
usually ends with a dissyllable. 

Rem. 2. This species of verse is seldom used, except in connection with 
hexameter, a line of each recurring alternately. This combination is called 
elegiac verse. Thus, 

Flebilis Indlgnos, Elegelft, solve caplllos. 

Ah nlmls ex vero nunc tlbl nomen erit! Ovid. Am. 3, 9, 3. 

30 



350 PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION — ANAPAESTIC METRE. § 313. 

§ 319. IV. The tetrameter a priore, or Alcmanian dactylic te- 
trameter, consists of the first four feet of a hexameter, of which the 
fourth is always a dactyl ; as, 

GarrulSL | per ra- | -mos, avis | obstrSpit. Sen. (Ed. 454. 

V. The tetrameter a posteriore, or spondaic tetrameter, consists of 
the last four feet of a hexameter ; as, 

Ibimus, | sod- | -I, comi- | -tesque. Hor. Od. 1, 7, 26. 

Remark. The penultimate foot in this, as in hexameter verse, may be a 
spondee, but in this case the preceding foot should be a dactyl ; as, 
Menso- | -rem cohi- | -bent Ar- | -chyti. Hor. Od. 1, 28, 2. 

VI. The dactylic trimeter consists of the last three feet of a hexa- 
meter; as, 

Grato | Pyrrha sub | antro. Hor. Od. I, 5, 3. 

Remark. But this kind of verse is more properly included in choriambio 
metre. See § 316, V. 

VII. The trimeter catalectic Archilochian consists of the first five 
half feet of a hexameter, but the first and second feet are commonly 
dactyls; as, 

Pulvis et | umbra su- | -mus. Hor. Od. 4, 7, 16. 

VIII. The dactylic dimeter, or Adonic, consists of two feet, a dac- 
tyl and a spondee ; as, 

Rlsit A- | -polio. Hor. Od. 1, 10, 12. 

IX. The JSolic pentameter consists of four dactyls preceded by a 
spondee, a trochee, or an iambus. Thus 



X. The Phalo3cian pentameter consists of a dactylic penthimimeris 
and a dactylic dimeter ; as, 

Vise- | -bat gell- | -dee || sldera | brumae. Bo'ethius. 

Remark. A trochee is sometimes found in the first place and an iambus in 
the first and second places. 

XI. The Tetrameter Meiurus, or Faliscan consists of the last four 
feet of a hexameter, except that the last foot is an iambus instead of 
a spondee ; as, 

Ut nova | fruge gra- | -vis Ceres | eat. BoGthius. 

XII. The Tetrameter Catalectic consists of the tetrameter a priore 
wanting the latter half of the concluding dactyl ; as, 

Omne homi- | -num genus | In ter- | -rls. Bo'ithius. 

ANAPiESTIC METRE. 

§ 313. I. The anapcestic monometer consists of two ana- 
paests; as, 

Uliilas- 1 -sS canSs Sen. 



§314. 



PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION — IAMBIC METRE. 



351 



H. The anapcestic dimeter consists of two measures, or four 
anapaests ; as, 

Pharetra- | -que graves | date sec- | -Ya fero.... Sen. 

Remark 1. The first foot in each measure of anapaestic metre was very 
often changed to a dactyl or a spondee, and the second foot often to a spondee, 
and, in a few instances," to a dactyl. 

Rem. 2. Anapaestic verses are generally so constructed that each measure 
ends with a word, so that they may be written and read in lines of one, two, 
or more measures. 

IAMBIC METRE. 



§ 314. I. 1. The iambic trimeter, or senarius, consists of 
three iambic measures, or six iambic feet ; as, 

Phase- | -lus II- | -le, H quem | Tide- 1 -tis hos- | -pites.... Catull. 4. 1. 

2. The caesura commonly occurs in the third but sometimes in the 
fourth foot. 

3. The pure iambic measure was seldom used by the Latin poets, 
but to vary the rhythm spondees were introduced into the first, third, 
and fifth places. In every foot, also, except the last, which was al- 
ways an iambus, a long syllable was often changed into two short 
ones, so that an anapaest or a dactyl was used for a spondee, and a 
tribrach for an iambus, but the use of the dactyl in the fifth place 
was very rare ; as, 

Quo. qu5 | scales- | -tl ruT- | -tis? aiit | cur dex- | -tens.... Hor. Epod. 7, 1. 

Alltl- | -bus at- | -que caul- | -bus homi- | -cldam Hec- | -torem.... Id. Epod. 17, 12. 

4. Sometimes, also, a proceleusmatic, or double pyrrhic, was used in the 
first place for a spondee. The writers of comedy, satire, and fable, admitted 
the spondee and its equivalents (the dactyl and anapaest) into the second and 
fourth places, as well as the first, third, and fifth. 

6. The following, therefore, is the scale of the Iambic Trimeter: — 
1 2 3 4 



(-~~) 



6. In the construction of the Iambic Trimeter an accent should fall on the 
second syllable of either the third foot or both the second and fourth feet; as, 
Ibis | Llbur- | -nls in- | ter al- | -ta na- | -vlum | . 
Utrum- | -ne jus- | -si per- | sequS'- | -mur 6- | -tlum. | 

IT. The scazon, or choliambus (lame iambic), is the iambic trime- 
ter, with a spondee in the sixth foot, and generally an iambus in the 
fifth; as, 

Cur In | thea- | -trum, Cato I seve- | -re", ve- | -nlstl? 

An Ide- | 5 tan- | -turn ven- | -eras, | ut ex- | -Ires? Mart, Ep. 1, 1, 3. 

This species of verse is also called Eipponaclic trimeter, from its inventor, 
Hipponax. 



352 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION IAMBIC METRE. § 314. 

III. The iambic tetrameter or quadratics, called also from the num- 
ber of its feet octonarius, a measure used by the comic poets, consists 
of four iambic measures, subject to the same variations as the iambic 
trimeter (I.) ; as, 

Nunc hie | dies | allam | vltam af- || -ferfc, all- | -os m5- 1 -res pos- | -tulat. Ter. A. 1,2, 18. 
Remark. The csesura regularly follows the second measure. 

IV. The iambic tetrameter catalectic or Hipponactic, is the iambic 
tetrameter, wanting the last syllable, and having always an iambus 
in the seventh prace, but admitting in the other places the same va- 
riations as the trimeter and tetrameter ; as, 

Depren- | -sa na- | -vis in | marl, | vesa- | -nlen- | -te yen- | -to. Catull. 25, 13. 

V. The iambic trimeter catalectic or Archilochian, is the iambic tri- 
meter (I.), wanting the final syllable. Like the common iambic tri- 
meter, it admits a spondee into the first and third places, but not into 
the fifth ; as, 

Voca- | -tus at- | -que non j voca- | -tus au- | -dit. Hor. Od. 2, 18, 40. 
Trahunt- | -que sic- | -cas mach- | -Inae | carl- 1 -nas. Id. Od. 1, 4, 2. 

VI. The iambic dimeter consists of two iambic measures, with the 
same variations as the iambic trimeter (I.) ; as, 

Forti | seque- | -mur p5c- | -tore. Hor. Epod. 1, 14. 
Canldl- | -a trac- | -tavlt | dapes. Id. Epod. 3, 8. 
Vide- | -re prope- 1 -rantes | domum. Id. Epod. 3, 62. 

Remark. The iambic dimeter is also called the Archilochian dimeter. 

The following is its scale : — 



1 


2 


3 


4 













VII. The iambic dimeter hypermeter, called also Archilochian, is 
the iambic dimeter, with an additional syllable at the end ; as, 

Rede- | -git In | veros | tlmo- | -res. Hor. Od. 1, 37, 15. 
Remark. Horace always makes the third foot a spondee. 

VIII. The iambic dimeter acephalous is the iambic dimeter, want- 
ing the first syllable ; as, 

Non | ebur | neque au- | -reum.... Hor. Od. 2, 18, 1. 

Remark. This kind of verse is sometimes scanned as a catalectic trochaic 
dimeter. See § 315, IV. 

IX. The iambic dimeter catalectic, or Anacreontic, is the iambic 
dimeter, wanting the final syllable, and having always an iambus in 
the third foot ; as, 

Ut tl- | gris or- 1 -ba gna- | -tls. Sen. Med. 863. 

X. The Galliambus consists of two iambic dimeters catalectic, the 
last of which wants the final syllable. 

Remark 1. It was so denominated from the Galli or priests of Cybele, by 
whom it was used. 



§ 315. PROSODY. VERSIFICATION — TROCHAIC METRE. 353 

Rem. 2. In the first foot of each dimeter the anapaest was generally pre- 
ferred to the spondee. The catalectic syllable at the end of the first dimeter 
is long, and the second foot of the second dimeter is commonly a tribrach; as, 

Super al- | -ti Tec- | -tus A- | -tys || celerl | rite ma- | -rla. Catull, 63, 1. 

Rem. 3. The csesura uniformly occurs at the end of the first dimeter. 

TROCHAIC METRE. 

§ old* 1. Trochaic verses bear a near affinity to iambics. The addi- 
tion or retrenchment of a syllable at the beginning of a pure iambic verse, ren- 
ders it pnre trochaic, and the addition or retrenchment of a syllable at the be- 
ginning of a pure trochaic line, renders it pure iambic, with the deficiency or 
redundancy of a syllable in each case at the end of the verse. 

I. The trochaic tetrameter catalectic consists of seven feet, fol- 
lowed by a catalectic syllable. In the first five places and very 
rarely in the sixth, it admits a tribrach, but in the seventh a 
trochee only. In the even places, besides the tribrach, it admits 
also a spondee, a dactyl, an anapaest, and sometimes a proceleus- 
matic ; as, 

Jussus I est In | ermls | Ire : || pflrus | Ire | jussus | est. Auct. P. Yin. 

Homu I lffias | Ipsa | fecit || cum Si- | -blnls | nuptl- | -as. Id. 

Danil J des, co- | -Ite ; | vestras || hie dl- | -es quae- | -rlt mi- | -nils. Sen. 



The following is its scale : — 



1 



2 



4 



5 



6 



7 



8 



Remark 1. The pure, trochaic verse was rarely used, and the dactyl very 
rarely occurs in the fourth place. The cassural pause uniformly occurs after 
the fourth foot, thus dividing the verse into a complete dimeter and a catalec- 
tic dimeter. The comic writers introduced the spondee and its equivalent feet 
into the odd places. 

Rem. 2. The complete trochaic tetrameter or octonarius properly consists of 
eight feet, all trochees, subject, however, to the same variations as* the catalec- 
tic tetrameter ; as, 

Ipse | summls | saxls | flxus | aspe- | -rls, e- | -vlsce- | -ratus. Enn. 

II. The Sapphic verse, invented by the poetess Sappho, consists 
of five feet — the first a trochee, the second a spondee, the third a 
dactyl, and the fourth and fifth trochees ; as, 

Inte- I -ger vl- | -tS, || scele- | -risque | pQrus. Hor. Od. 1, 22, 1. 

1. Sappho, and, after her example, Catullus, sometimes made the second 
foot a trochee. 

2. Those Sapphics are most harmonious which have the caesura after the 
fifth semi-foot. 

Note 1. In the composition of the Sapphic stanza, a word is sometimes 
divided between the end of the third Sapphic, and the beginning of the Adonic 
which follows ; as, 

Labi- | -tur rl- | -pa Jove | non pro- | -bante ux- 
orlus | amnis. Hor. Od. 1, 2, 19. 

30* 



354 PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION — CHORIAMBIC METRE. § 316. 

It has been thought by some that such lines should be considered as one 
Sapphic verse of seven feet, the fifth foot being either a spondee or a trochee. 

Note 2. This verse is sometimes scanned as epichoriambic, having an epi- 
trite in the first place, a choriambus in the second, and ending with an iambic 
sizygy catalectic; thus, 

Integer vi- | -tie, sceleris- | -que purus. 

III. The Phalcecian verse consists of five feet — a spondee, a dac- 
tyl, and three trochees ; as, 

Non est | vivere, | sed va- | -lere | yita. Mart. 

Kemark 1. Instead of a spondee as the first foot, Catullus sometimes uses a 
trochee or an iambus. This writer also sometimes uses a spondee in the 
second place. 

Rem. 2. The Phalcecian verse is sometimes called hendecasyllabic, as con- 
sisting of eleven syllables ; but that name does not belong to it exclusively. 

IV. The trochaic dimeter catalectic consists of three feet, properly 
all trochees, and a catalectic syllable, but admitting also in the second 
place a spondee or a dactyl ; as, 

Non e | -bur ne- | -que aure- | -um. Hor. Od. 2, 18, 1. 
Lenls | ac modi- | -cum flu- | -ens 

Aura, | nee ver- | -gens la- | -tus. Sen. (Ed. 887. 

Note. This measure is the same as the acephalous iambic dimeter (see 
§ 314, VIII.), and it is not important whether it be regarded as iambic or 
trochaic. 

CHORIAMBIC METRE. 

§ 316. (a.) In a pure choriambic verse each metre except 
the last is a choriambus, and the last an Iambic syzy gy. 

Note. A spondee and iambus, i. e. a third epitrite, are sometimes used in 
place of the Iambic syzygy. 

(b.) An epichoriambic verse is composed of one or more 
choriambi with some other foot, especially a ditrochee or a 
second epitrite, joined with it. 

1. The choriambic pentameter consists of a spondee, three chori- 
ambi, and an iambus ; as, 

Tu ne | quEesierls, | scire nef as, | quern mlhi, quern tibi. Her. Od. 1, 11, 1. 

II. The choriambic tetrameter consists of three choriambi, or feet 
of equal length, and a Bacchius ; as, 

Omne nemus | cum flfivlls, | oinne canat | profundum. Claud. 

2. In this verse Horace substituted a spondee for the iambus con- 
tained in the first choriambus ; as, 

Te deos o- | -ro, Sybarln | cur properes | amando. Hor. Od. 1, 8. 2. 

3. Some scan this verse as an epichoriambic tetrameter catalectic, begin- 
ning with the second epitrite. 

III. 1. The Asclepiadic tetrameter (invented by the poet Ascle- 
piades) consists of a spondee, two choriambi, and an iambus ; as, 

M£ce- | -nas, atavls || edlte reg- | -Ibus. Hor. Od. 1, 1, 1. 



§ 317. PROSODY. VERSIFICATION — IONIC METRE. 355 

2. This form is invariably observed by Horace ; but other poets sometimes, 
though rarely, make the first foot a dactyl. 

3. The csesural pause occurs at the end of the first choriambus. 

4. This measure is sometimes scanned as a dactylic pentameter catalectic. 
See § 311, III. Thus, 

Mcece- | -nas, ata- | vis \\ edite | regibus. 

IV. 1. The choriambic trimeter, or Glyconic (invented by the poet 
Glyco), consists of a spondee, a choriambus, and an iambus; as, 

Sic te | diva potens | Cyprl... Hor. Od. 1, 3, 1. 

2. The first foot is sometimes an iambus or a trochee. 

3. When the first foot is a spondee, the verse might be scanned as a dactylic 
trimeter. Thus, 

Sic te | dlTa po- | -tens Cypri. 

V. 1. The choriambic trimeter catalectic, or Pherecratic (so called 
from the poet Pherecrates), is the Glyconic deprived of its final syl- 
lable, and consists of a spondee, a choriambus, and a catalectic sylla- 
ble ; as, 

Grato, I Pyrrha, sub an- | -tro. Hor. Od. 1, 5, 3. 

2. The first foot was sometimes a trochee or an anapest, rarely an iambus. 

3. "When the first foot is a spondee, this measure might be scanned as a 
dactylic trimeter. See § 312, VI. 

4. The Pherecratic subjoined to the Glyconic produces the Priapean verse. 
See § 310, II. 

VI. 1. The choriambic dimeter consists of a choriambus and a 
Bacchius; as, 

Lydia die | per omnes. Hor. Od. 1, 8, 1. 

2. This verse is by some called the choriambic dimeter catalectic. Cf. § 316, 
(a.) 

IONIC METRE. 

§ 317. I. The Ionic a majore, or Sotadic, (from the poet So- 
tades), consists of three greater Ionics and a spondee. 

1. The Ionic feet, however, are often changed into ditrochees, and either of 
the two long syllables in those feet into two short ones ; as, 

Has, cum genii- | -na c5mpede, | dedlcat ca- | -tenas, 
Saturne, tl- | -bl Zoilus, | annulos pri- | -ores. Mart. 

2. Hence the following is its scale : — 



4 



Note. The final syllable, by § 301, note, may be short. 

II. 1. The Ionic a minore consists generally of verses of three or 
four feet, which are all smaller Ionics ; as, 

Puer ales, | tlbi telis, | operosa;- | -que Minervse... Hor. Od. 3, 12, 4. 

2. In this verse, as in the anapaestic, no place is assigned to the pause ; be- 
cause, since the metres, if rightly constructed, end with a word, the effect of a 
pause will be produced at the end of each metre. 



356 PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION — COMPOUND METRES. § 318. 



COMPOUND METRES. 

§ 318* Compound metre is the union of two species of 
metre in the same verse. 

1. The dactylico-iambic metre or Elegiambus consists of a dactylic 
penthemimeris (312, vu.), followed by an iambic dimeter (§ 314, 
vi.); as, 

Scrlbere | verslcii- | -15s || amo- | -re per- | -culsum | gravl. Hor. Epod. 11, 2. 

II. The iambico-dactylic metre or Iambelegus consists of the same 
members as the preceding, but in a reversed order ; as, 

Nlves- | -que" de- | -ducunt | Jovem : || nunc mare, | nunc silu- j -ae. Hor. Epod. 13, 2. 

Note. The members composing this and the preceding species of verse are 
often written in separate verses. 

III. The greater Alcaic consists of an iambic penthemimeris, i. e. 
of two iambic feet and a long catalectic syllable, followed by a chor- 
iambus, and an iambus ; as, 

Vldes | ut al- | -ta || stet nlve can- | -dldum. Htr. Od. 1, 9, 1. 
Remark 1. The first foot is often a spondee. 
Rem. 2. The caesura uniformly occurs after the catalectic syllable. 
Rem. 3. This verse is sometimes so scanned as to make the last two feet 
dactyls. 

IV. The dactylico-trochaic or Archilochian heptameter, consists of 
the dactylic tetrameter a prior e (§312), followed by three trochees ; 

as, 

Solvitur | acrls hi- | -ems gra- | -ta vice || verls | et Fa- | -v5nt. Hor. Od. 1, 4, 1. 
Remark. The caesura occurs between the two members. 

V. The dactylico-trochaic tetrameter or lesser Alcaic, consists of two 
dactyls, followed by two trochees, i. e. of a dactylic dimeter followed 
by a trochaic monometer ; as, 

Levla | personu- || -ere j saxa. Hor. Od. 1, 17, 12. 

COMBINATION OF VERSES IN POEMS. 

§ 310. 1. A poem may consist either of one kind of verse 
only or of a combination of two or more kinds. 

2. A poem in which only one kind of verse is employed, is called 
carmen monocolon ; that which has two kinds, dicolon ; that which 
has three kinds, tricolon. 

3. When the poem returns, after the second line, to the same 
verse with which it began, it is called distrophon ; when after the 
third line, tristrophon ; and when after the fourth, tetrastrophon. 

4. The several verses which occur before the poem returns to the 
kind of verse with which it began, constitute a stanza or strophe. 

6. A poem consisting of two kinds of verse, when the stanza contains two 
verses, is called dicdlwi distrdpkon, (see § 320, 3); when it contains three, died- 



. 



§ 320. PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION — HORATIAN METRES. 357 

Ion tristrdphon, (Auson. Profess. 21); when four, dicolon tetrastrophon, (§ 320, 2); 
and when five, dicolon pentastrdphon. 

6. A poem consisting of three kiuds of verse, when the stanza contains three 
verses, is called tricohn tristrdphon, (§ 320, 15); when four, tricolon tetrastrd- 
phon, ($ 320, 1). 

HORATIAN METRES. 

§ 320. The different species of metre used by Horace in 
his lyric compositions are twenty. The various forms in which 
he has employed them, either separate or in conjunction, are 
nineteen, arranged, according to the order of preference given 
to them by the poet, in the following 

SYNOPSIS. 

1. Two greater Alcaics (§ 318, in.), one Archilochian iambic 
dimeter byperaieter (§ 314, vn.), and one lesser Alcaic (§318, v.) ; 
as, 

Vides, ut alta stet nive candidum 
SoractS, nee jam sustlneant onua 
Sllvae laborantes. geluquS 
Flumlna constiterlnt aciito. {Lib. 1, 9.) 

Remark. This is called the Horatian stanza, because it seems to have been 
a favorite with Horace, being used in thirty-seven of his odes. 

2. Three Sapphics (§315, n.) and one Adonic (§312, vm.) ; as, 

Jam satis terns nivls atque dtrae 
Grandlnis mlsit pater, et, rubente 
Dextera sacras jaculatus arces, 

Terrult urbem. (Lib. 1, 2.) 

3. One Glyconic (§ 316, iv.) and one Asclepiadic (§ 316, in.) ; as, 

Sic te Diva potens Cypri, 

Sic fratres Helens, luclda sldera... (Lib. 1, 3.) 

4. One iambic trimeter (§ 314, i.) and one iambic dimeter (§314, 
VI.) ; as, 

Ibis Liburnls Inter alta navlum, 

Amice, propiignacula. (Epod. 1.) 

5. Three Asclepiadics (§316, in.) and one Glyconic (§316, iv.) ; 
as, 

Scrlberls Varlo f ortis, et hostium 

Victor, Maeoall carmlnls allti, 

Quam rem cumque ferox navlbus aut equis 

Miles, te duce, gesserit. (Lib. 1, 6.) 

6. Two Asclepiadics (§ 316, in.), one Pherecratic (§ 316, v.), and 
one Glyconic (§ 316, iv.) ; as, 

Dlanam, tenerae, dlcite vlrgines: 
Intonsum, puerl, dlcite Cynthlum, 
Latonamque supr3mo 

Dllectam penltus JSvi. (Lib. 1, 21.) 

7. The Asclepiadic (§ 316, in.) alone; as, 

Maecenas atavls edltfi rSglbus. (Lib. 1, 1.) 



358 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION HORATIAN METRES. § 320. 

8. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, i.) and one dactylic tetrameter 
a posteriore (§ 312, v.) ; as, 

Laudabunt a.111 claram RhSdon, aut MItylSnen, 

Aut Ephesum, blmarlsve C5rinthi... (Lib. 1, 7.) 

9. The choriambic pentameter (§ 316, 1.) alone; as, 

Tu ne quSsIerls, scire" nSfas, quern mini, quern tlbi... (Lib. 1, 11.) 

10. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, i.) and one iambic dimeter 
(§ 314, vi.) ; as, 

Nox erat, et coelo f ulgebat luna sereno 
Inter minora sldera. (Epod. 15.) 

11. The iambic trimeter (§ 314, i.) containing spondees; as, 

Jam. jam efflcacl do minus sclentlae. (Epod. 17.) 

12. One choriambic dimeter (§316, vi.) and one choriambic tetra- 
meter (§ 316, ii.) with a variation ; as, 

Lydla, die, per omnes 
Te Deos 5ro, Sybarln cur properas amando... (Lib. 1, 8.) 

13. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, i.) and one iambic trimeter 
without spondees (§ 314, i.) ; as, 

Altera jam terltur belllfl clvlllbus «tas ; 
Suls et Ipsa Roma vlrlbus ruit. (Epod. 16.) 

14. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, i.) and one dactylic penthe- 
mimeris (§ 312, vn.) ; as, 

Dlffugere nlves: redeunt jam gramina campls, 
Arborlbusque cSmae. (Lib. 4, 7.) 

15. One iambic trimeter (§ 314, i.), one dactylic trimeter catalec- 
tic (§ 312, vn.), and one iambic dimeter (§ 314, vi.) ; as, 

Petti, nihil me, slcut antea, juvat 
Scribere verslculos, 
Amore perciilsiim grayi. (Epoa. 11.) 

Note. The second and third lines are often written as one verse. See 
§ 318, 1. 

16. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, I.), one iambic dimeter (§ 314, 
VI.), and one dactylic penthemimeris (§ 312, vn.) ; as, 

Horrlda. tempestas coelum contrixlt; et Imbres 
NIvesque deducunt Joyem : 
Nunc mare, nunc slluae... (Epod. 13.) 

Note. The second and third lines of this stanza, also, are often written as 
one verse. See § 318, n. 

17. One Archilochian heptameter (§ 318, IV.) and one iambic tri- 
meter catalectic (§ 314, v.) ; as, 

Solvltur acrls hlems grata. vIcS vSrls et FavSni, 

Trahuntque slccas machlnas carinas. (Lib. 1, 4.) 

18. One iambic dimeter acephalous (§ 314, vni.) and one iambic 
trimeter catalectic (§ 314, v.) ; as, 

Non ebur n6que aurSum 
Mea rSuIdet In domo lacunar. (Lib. 2, 18.) 

19. The Ionic a minore (§317, n.) alone; as, 

Mlserarum 5st n^que amorl darS ludum, nfiqu6 dulcl... (Lib. 3, 12.) 



§321. PROSODY. VERSIFICATION HORATIAN METRES. 359 



§ 321. A METRICAL KEY TO THE ODES OF HORACE. 



Containing, in alphabetic order, the first words of each, with a refer- 
ence to the numbers in the preceding Synopsis, ichere the metre is 
explained. 



JEli, vetusto No. 1 

jEquam memento 1 

Albi, ne doleas 5 

Altera jam teiitur 13 

Angustam, amice 1 

At, deorum 4 

Audivere, Lyce 6 

Bacchum in remotis 1 

Beatus ille 4 

Coelo suplnas 1 

Coelo tonantem 1 

Cur me querelis 1 

Delicta majorum 1 

Descende coelo 1 

Difmam, tent-ia? 6 

DifFugere nives 14 

Dive, qnem proles 2 

Divis orte bonis 5 

Donarem pateras 7 

Donee gratus eram tibi 3 

Eheu ! fugaces 1 

Est mihi nonum 2 

Et ture et fidibus 3 

Exegi monumentum 7 

Extremum Tanaim 5 

Faune, nympharum 2 

Festo quid potius die 3 

Herculis ritu 2 

Horrida tempestas 16 

Ibis Liburnis 4 

Icci, beatis 1 

Ille et nefasto 1 

Impios parrse 2 

Inclu*am DanaCn 5 

Intactis opulentior 3 

Integer vitae 2 

Intermissa, Venus, diu 3 

Jain jam efficaci 11 

Jam pauca aratro 1 

Jam satis ten-is 2 

Jam veris comites 5 

Justum et tenacem 1 

Laudabunt alii 8 

Lupis et agnis 4 

Lydia, die, per omnes 12 

Maecenas atavis 7 

Mala soluta 4 

Martiis caelebs 2 

Mater sseva Cupidinum 3 

Merciiri, facunde 2 

Merciiri, nam te 2 

Miserarum est 19 



Mollis inertia No.10 

Montium custos 2 

Motum ex Metello 1 

Musis amicus 1 

Natis in usum 1 

Ne forte credas 1 

Ne sit ancillae 2 

Nolis longa ferae 5 

Nondum subacta 1 

Non ebur neque aureum 18 

Non semper imbres 1 

Non usitata 1 

Non vides, quanto 2 

Nox erat 10 

Nullam, Vare, sacra 9 

Nullus argento 2 

Nunc est bibendum 1 

crudelis adhuc 9 

diva, gratum 1 

fons Bandusiae , . 6 

matre pulchra 1 

nata mecum 1 

O navis, referent 6 

saepe mecum 1 

Venus, regina 2 

Odi prof anum 1 

Otium Divos 2 

Parcius junctas 2 

Parous Deorum 1 

Parentis olim 4 

Pastor quum traheret 5 

Percicos odi, puer 2 

Petti, nihil me 15 

Phoebe, silvarumque 2 

Phoebus volentem 1 

Pindarum quisquis 2 

Poscimur: si quid 2 

Quae cura Patrum 1 

Qualem ministrum 1 

Quando repostum 4 

Quantum distet ab Inacho 3 

Quem tu, Melpomene 3 

Quern virum aut heroa 2 

Quid bellicosus 1 

Quid dedicatum 1 

Quid fles, Asterie 6 

Quid immerentes 4 

Quid obseratis 11 

Quid tibi vis 8 

Quis desiderio 5 

Quis multa gracilis 6 

Quo me, Bacche 3 



360 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION HORATIAN METRES. § 321. 



Quo, quo, scelesti rultis No. 4 

Quum tu, Lydia 3 

Rectius vives 2 

Rogare longo 4 

Scriberis Vario 5 

Septimi, Gades 2 

Sic te Diva potens 3 

Solvitur acris hiems 17 

Te maris et terrse 8 



Tu ne qusesieris No. 9 

Tyrrhena regum 1 

Ulla si juris 2 

Uxor pauperis Ibyci 3 

Velox amoenum 1 

Vides, ut alta 1 

Vile potabis 2 

Vitas hinnuleo 6 

Vixi puellis , 1 



The following are the single metres used by Horace in his lyric 
compositions, viz : — 



10. 



Dactylic Hexameter. 

Dactylic Tetrameter a posteriori. 

Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic. 

Adonic. 

Trimeter Iambic. 

Iambic Trimeter Catalectic. 

Iambic Dimeter. 

Arcbilochian Iambic Dimeter Hy- 

permeter. 
Iambic Dimeter Acephalous. 
Sapphic. 



11. Choriambic Pentameter. 

12. Choriambic Tetrameter. 

13. Asclepiadic Tetrameter. 

14. Glyconic. 

15. Pherecratic. 

16. Choriambic Dimeter. 

17. Ionic a minore. 

18. Greater Alcaic. 

19. Archilochian Heptameter. 

20. Lesser Alcaic. 






§ 322, 323. APPENDIX. — GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 361 



APPENDIX. 



GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 

§ 322. Certain deviations from the regular form and con- 
struction of words, are called grammatical figures. These may 
relate either to Orthography and Etymology, or to Syntax. 

I. FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND ETYMOLOGY. 

These are distinguished by the general name of metaplasm. 

1. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or syllable to a word; as, gndtus, for 
natvs ; tetuli, for tuli. These, however, are rather the ancient customary forms, 
from which those now in use were formed by aphseresis. 

2. Aphceresis is the taking of a letter or syllable from the beginning of a 
word ; as, 'si, for est ; rdbdnem, for arrdbonem. 

3. Epenthesis is the insertion of a letter or syllable in the middle of a word; 
as, dlltuum, for allium; JMdcors, for Mars. 

4. Syncope is the omission of a letter or syllable in the middle of a word ; as, 
deum, for deorum ; meum factum, for meorum factdrum; soecla, for sozcula; Jlesti, 
for flevisti ; repostus, for repositus ; asjwis, for asjieris. 

5. Crasis is the contraction of two vowels into one ; as, cogo, for cddgo ; nil, 
for nihil. 

6. Paragoge is the addition of a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; as, 
med, for me ; claudier, for claudi. 

7. Apocope is the omission of the final letter or syllable of a word; as, men\ 
for me ne ; Antoni, for Antonii. 

8. Antithesis is the substitution of one letter for another; as, olli, for illi; 
qptSmiu, for opUmus; officio, for adficio. is often thus used for u, especially 
after v ; as, voltus, for vultus ; servom, for servum. So after qu ; as, ozquom, for 
ceguum. 

9. Metathesis is the changing of the order of letters in a word; as, pistris, 
for pristis. 

H. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

323. The figures of Syntax are ellipsis, pleonasm, enal- 
lage, and hyperbaton. 

1. (a.) Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words in a sen- 
tence ; as, 

Aiant, scil. hdmines. Dirius Hysfaspis, scil. flUus. Cdno, sell. ego. Quid 
multa ? scil. d'tcam. Ex quo, scil. ttmpdre. Ferina, scil. caro. 

(b.) Ellipsis includes asyndeton, zeugma, syllepsis, and prolepjsis. 
(1.) Asyndeton is the omission of the copulative conjunction; as, dbiit, ex- 
cessit, evdsil, criipit scil. et. Cic. This is called in pure Latin dissOlutio. 
31 



362 APPENDIX. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. § 323 

(2.) (a.) Zeugma is the uniting of two nouns or two infinitives to a verb, 
which, as to its meaning, is applicable to only one of them; as, Pdcem an bel- 
lum gerens :( Sail. ) where gerens is applicable to bellum only, while pdcem re- 
quires dgere. Semperne in sanguine, ferro, fugd versabimurf (Id.) where the 
verb does not properly apply to ferro. 

(b.) NSgo is often thus used with two propositions, one of which is affirma- 
tive ; as, Negant C&sdrem mansurum, postuldtdque interpdsita esse, for dlcuntque 
postuldta... Cic. See § 209, Note 4. . 

(c.) When an adjective or verb, referring to two or more nouns, agrees with 
one, and is understood with the rest, the construction is also sometimes called 
zeugma, but more commonly syllepsis ; as, Et genus, et virtus, nisi cum re, vllior 
alga est. Hor. Caper tibi salvus et hzdi. Virg. Quamvis ille niger, quamvis tu 
Candida esses. Id. 

(3.) Syllepsis is when an adjective or verb, belonging to two or more nouns 
of different genders, persons, or numbers, agrees with one rather than another ; 
as, Attonlti ndmtdte pdvent Baucis, timidusque Philemon. Ovid. Prdcumbit 
iiterque pronus humi, i. e. Deucalion et Pyrrha. Id. Sustulimus mdnus et ego 
et Balbus. Cic. So, Ipse cum fratre ddesse jussi sumus. Id. Projectisque dmi- 
culo et Uteris. Curt. See §§ 205, K. 2, and 209, R. 12, (3.) and (7.) 

(4.) Prdlepsis is when the parts, differing in number or person from the 
whole, are placed after it, the verb or adjective not being repeated; as, Prin- 
cipes utrinque pugnam ciebant, ab Sdbinis Mettius Curtius, ab Romdnis Hostus 
Hostllius. Liv. Boni qudniam convenimus ambo, tu cdldmos infldre, ego dicere 
versus. Virg. 

2. (a.) Pleonasm is using a greater number of words than is neces- 
sary to express the meaning ; as, 

Sic ore Idcuta est. Virg. Qui magis vere vincere quam diu imperdre malit. Liv. 
Nemo unus. Cic. Forte fortund. Id. Prudens sciens. Ter. 

(b.) Under pleonasm are included parelcon, polysyndeton, hendi- 
adys, and periphrasis. 

(1.) Parelcon is the addition of an unnecessary syllable or particle to pro- 
nouns, verbs, or adverbs; as, egdmet, dgedum, fortassean. Such additions, 
however, usually modify the meaning in some degree. 

(2.) Polysyndeton is a redundancy of conjunctions ; as, Una Eurusque Notus- 
que ruunt creberque prdcellis Africus. Virg. 

(3.) Hendiadys is the expression of an idea by two nouns connected by et, 
-que, or atque, instead of a noun and a limiting adjective or genitive; as, Pate- 
ris llbdmus et auro, for aureis pdteris. Virg. Libro et silvestri sub ere clausam, 
for libro suberis. Id. Cristis et auro. Ovid. Met. 3, 32. 

(4.) Periphrasis or circumlocutio is a circuitous mode of expression; as, 71"- 
neri jcetus ovium, i. e. agni. Virg. 

3. (a.) Enallage is a change of words, or a substitution of one gen- 
der, number, case, person, tense, mood, or voice of the same word for 
another. 

(b.) Enallage includes antimeria, heterosis, antiptosis, synesis, and 
anacoluthon. 

(1.) Antimeria is the use of one part of speech for another, or the abstract 
for the concrete ; as, Nostrum istud vivere triste, for nostra vita. Pers. Aliud 
eras. Id. Conjugium videbit? for con ju gem. Virg. 

(2.) Heterosis is the use of one form of noun, pronouiij verb, etc., for another; 
as, Ego quoque una pereo, quod mihi est carius, for qui mihi sum cdrior. Ter. 



§ 324. APPENDIX. — TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 363 

Romanus prcelio victor, for Romdni victores. Liv. Many words are used by the 
poets in the plural instead of the singular; as ? colla, corda, dra, etc. See § 98. 
Me truncus ulapsus cerebro sustulerat, for sustuhsset. Hor. See § 259, R. 4. 

(3.) Antiptosis is the use of one case for another; as, Cui nunc cognomen 
Iulo, for lulus. Virg. ^ 204, R. 8. Uxor invicti Jdvis esse nescis, for te esse uxb- 
rem. Hor. § 210, R. 6. 

(4.) Synesis, or synthesis, is adapting the construction to the sense of a word, 
rather than to its gender or number; as, Subeunt Tegaa jiiyentus auxilio tardi. 
Stat. Concursus populi mirantium quid rei est. Liv. Pars in crucem acti. Sail. 
Ubi illic est scelus, qui me perdidit? Ter. Id raea minime refert, qui sum ndtu 
maximus. Id. See § 205, R. 3, (1.) and (3.), and § 206, (12.) 

(5.) Anacdluthon is a disagreement in construction between the latter and 
former part of a sentence ; as, Nam nos omnes, gulbus est dlicunde dliquis objectus 
labos, omne quod est interea tempus, priusquam id rescitum est, lucro est. Ter. 
In this example, the writer began as if he intended to say lucro hdbemus, and 
ended as if he had said nobis omnibus, leaving nos omnes without its verb. 

4. (a.) Hyperbaton is a transgression of the usual order of words 
or clauses. 

(b.) Hyperbaton includes anastrophe, Jiysteron proteron, hypallage, 
synchysis, tmesis, and parenthesis. 

(1.) Anastrdphe is an inversion of the order of two words; as^ Transtra per 
et remos, for per transtra. Virg. Collo dare brdchia circum, for circumddre. Id. 
Nox erit una super, for super ent. Ovid. Et fdcit are, for drefdcit. Lucr. 

(2.) Eysteron prdtSron is reversing the natural order of the sense; as, Mdrid- 
tnur, et in media arma rudmus. Virg. Valet atque vlvit. Ter. 

(3.) Bypalldge is an interchange of constructions; as, In ndvafert animus 
mutdtas dicer e formas coipdra, for corpdra mutdta in ndvas formas. Ovid. Dare 
classibus Austros, for dare classes Austris. Virg. 

(4.) Synchysis is a confused position of words; as, Saxa vdcant Mali, mediis 
quae in jluctibus, dras, for qua saxa in mediis jiuctibus, Itdli vdcant dras. Virg. 

(5.) Tmesis or diacope is the separation of the parts of a compound word; 
as, Septem subjecta trioni gens, for septentridni. Virg. Qua me cumque vdcant 
terra. Id. Per mihi, per, mquam, grdtum feceris. Cic. 

(6.) Parenthesis or dialysis is the insertion of a word or words in a sentence 
interrupting the natural connection; as, Tityre dum redeo, (brevis est via,) 
pasce cdpellas. Virg. 

Remark. To the above may be added archaism and Hellenism, 
which belong both to the figures of etymology and to those of syntax. 

(1.) Archaism is the use of ancient forms or constructions; as, auldi, for 
aulce; sendti, for sendliis ; funt, for sit ; prdhibesso, for prdhibuero ; impetrassere, 
f»r iwpetrdturum esse ; f drier, for J'dri ; nenu, for non; endo, for in; — Operam 
dbutitur, for Opera. Ter. Quid tibi hanc curdtio est rem ? Plaut. 

(2.) Hellenism is the use of Greek forms or constructions; as, IleUne, for 
Hil&na; Antiphon, for Anlipho ; auras (gen.), for aura; Pallddos, Palldda, for 
Pallddis, Pallddem; Trodsin, Troddas, for Troddibus, Trdddes ; — Abstineto ira- 
rum. Hor. Tempus desistere pugna. Virg. 

S «5^ / *« (1.) To the grammatical figures may not improperly be subjoined cer- 
tain others, which are often referred to in philological works, and which are called 

TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

(2.) A rhetorical figure is a mode of expression different from the direct and 
simple way of expressing the same sense. The turning of a word from its 
original and customary meaning, is called a trope. 



364 APPENDIX. — TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. § 324. 

1. (a.) A metaphor is the transferring of a word from the object to which it 
properly belongs, and applying it to another, to which that object has some 
analogy ; as, Ridet dger, The field smiles. Virg. uEtas anrea, The golden age. 
Ovid. Naufragia fortunce, The wreck of fortune. Cic. Mentis oculi, The eyes 
of the mind. Id. Virtus dnxmum glorice stimulis concltat. The harshness of a 
metaphor is often softened by means of quasi, tamquam, quidam, or ut ita dlcam ; 
as, In una philosophid quasi tabeniaculum vita, sum collocarunt. Id. Opimum 
quoddam et tamquam adlpatse dictidnis genus. Id. 

(b.) Cdtachresis or dbusio is a bold or harsh metaphor; as, Vir gregis ipse 
caper. Virg. Eurus per Siculas equltavit undas. Hor. 

2. Metonymy is substituting the name of an object for that of another to 
which it has a certain relation ; as the cause for the effect, the container for 
what is contained, the property for the substance, the sign for the thing signi- 
fied, and their contraries; the parts of the body for certain affections; the pos- 
sessor for the thing possessed ; place and time for the persons or things which 
they comprise, etc. ; as, Mortdles, for homines. Virg. Amor duri Martis, i. e. 
belli. Id. Fruges Cererem appelldmus, vinum autem Llberum. Cic. Ciipio vlgi- 
liam meam tibi trddere, i. e. meam curam. Id. Pallida mors. Hor. Hausit pa- 
teram, i. e. vinum. Virg. V5na coronant, i. e. pdteram. Id. Necte ternos colores, 
i. e. tria fila diversi colons. Id. Cedant arma togae, i. e. bellum pdci. Cic. 
Ssecula mitescent, i. e. homines in sceculis. Virg. Vivat Pdcuvius vel Nestora 
totum. Juv. Doctrind Grsecia nos superdbat, for Grceci sujierabant. Cic. Pagi 
centum Suevdrum adripas Rheni consederant, for pa gorumincdloi. Caes. Tempora 
amicdrum, for res adversce. Cic. Claudius lege praididtdrid vendlis pependit, 
for Claudii praidium. Suet. Vtci ad Janum medium sedentes, for Jdni vi- 
ctim. Cic. 

3. Synecdoche is putting a whole for a part, a genus for a species, a singular 
for a plural, and their contraries; also the material for the thing made of it; 
a definite for an indefinite number, etc. ; as, Fontem ferebant. Id. Tectum, for 
ddmus. Id. Armdto mllite complent, for armaiis militibus. Id. Ferrum, for gld~ 
dius. Id. Qui Corinthiis operibus abundant, i. e. vdsis. Cic. Urbem, urbem, mi 
Mufe, cdle, i. e. Romam. Cic. Centum puer artium, i. e. multdrum. 

4. Irony is the intentional use of words which express a sense contrary to 
that which the writer or speaker means to convey ; as, Salve bone vir, curasti 
probe. Ter. Egregiam vero laudem, et spolia ampla refertis, tuque, puerque 
tuus. Virg. 

5. Hyperbdle is the magnifying or diminishing of a thing beyond the truth ; 
as, Ipse arduus, altdque pulsat sidera. Virg. Odor Euro. Id. 

6. Metdlepsis is the including of several tropes in one word; as, Post aliquot 
aristas. Virg. Here arislas is put for messes, and this for annos. 

7. (a.) Allegory is a consistent series of metaphors, designed to illustrate one 
subject by another; as, ndvis, referent in mare te novi jluctus. Hor. 

(b.) An obscure allegory or riddle is called an cenigma ; as, Die, quibus in 
terris tres pdteat ca^li spdtium non amplius ulnas. Virg. 

8. Antdndmdsia is using a proper noun for a common one, and the contrary ; 
as, Irus et est subito, qui modo Croesus erat, for pauper and dives. Ovid. So, by 
periphrasis, potor Rhdddni, for Gallus. Hor. Eversor Carthdginis, for Sdpio. 
Quint. Eldquentice princeps, for Cicero. Id. Tydldes, for Diomedes. Virg. 

9. Litdtes is a mode of expressing something by denying the contrary ; as, 
Non laudo, I blame. Ter. Non innoxia verba. Virg. 

10. Antiphrdsis is using a word in a sense opposite to its proper meaning ; 
as, Auri sacra fames. Virg. 

11. Euphemism is the use of softened language to express what is offensive 
or distressing; as, Si quid accidisset Ccesdri, i. e. si mortuus esset. Veil. 

12. Antanacldsis or punning is the use of the same word in different senses ; 
as, Quis neget yEnece ndtum lie stirpe Neronem ? Sustulit^ hie mutrem, suslulit 
Me patrem. Epigr. Amari jucundum est, si curetur ne qxdd insit amari. Cic. 



§ 324. APPENDIX. TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 365 

13. Andphdra or epanaphdra is the repetition of a word at the beginning of 
successive clauses; as, Nlhilne te nocturnum presidium pdlatii, nihil urbis vigi- 
lia>, nihil timor pdpuli, etc. Cic. Te, dulcis conjux, te, solo in litdre secum, te, 
venienie die, te, decedente, cdnebat. Virg. 

14. Epistrdphe is the repetition of a word at the end of successive clauses ; 
as, Poznos pdpu'.us Rdmdnus justitia vlcit, armis vicit, liberdlitate vicit. Cic. In 
pure Latin this figure is called conversio. 

15. Symploce is the repetition of a word at the beginning, and of another at 
tbe end, of successive clauses, and hence it includes the anaphora and the 
epistrdphe ; as, Quis legem tulit f Rullus : Quis mdjorem pdpuli partem suffrd- 
giis privdvit? Rullus: Quis cdmitiis prcefuit? Idem Rullus. Cic. 

16. Epdndlepsis is a repetition of the same word or sentence after interven- 
ing words or clauses. See Virg. Geor. II. 4 — 7. 

17. Anddiplosis is the use of the same word at the end of one clause, and the 
beginning of another; as, Sequttur pulchernmus Astur, Astur equo fldens. Virg. 
A. 10, lbO. Nunc etiam audes in horum conspectum venire, venire audes in horum 
conspectum ? Cic. This is sometimes called epdnastrdphe. 

18. Epunddipldsis is the use of the same word both at the beginning and end 
of a sentence ; as, Crescit amor nummi, quantum ipsa pecunia crescit. Juv. 

19. Epdnddos or regressio is the repetition of the same words in an inverted 
order; as, Crud'dis mater mdyis, an puer improbus Me? Improbus ilk puer, cru- 
d'lis tu qudque, mater. Virg. 

20. Epizeuxis is a repetition of the same word for the sake of emphasis; as, 
Excltate, excltate eum ab inferis. Cic. Ah Corydon, Corydon, qua, te dementia 
cepitt Virg. Ibimus, ibiinus, utcumque precedes. Hor. 

21. Climax is a graducd amplification by means of a continued anadiplosis, 
each successive clause beginning with the conclusion of that which precedes 
it; a>, Qua rellqua spes manet libertdtis, si Mis et quodlibet, licet; et quod licet, 
possunt; et quod possunt, audent; et quod audent, vobis molestum non est? Cic. 
This, in pure Latin, is called grdddtio. 

22. Incrementum is an amplification without a strict climax; as, Fdcinus est, 
viiu'tri civem Ronvinum ; scelus, verberdri ; prope parricidium, necdri ; quid dl- 
cain in crucem tulli ? Cic. 

23. Pdlyptoton is the repetition of a word in different cases, genders, num- 
bers, tenses, etc. ; as, Jam clipeus elipeis, umbdne repellitur umbo ; ense minax 
ensis, pede pes, et cusplde cuspis. Stat. 

24. ParegmSnon is the use of several words of the same origin, in one sen- 
tence; as, Abesse non potest, quin ejusdem hdminis sit, qui improbos probet, pro- 
bos improbare. Cic. Istam pugnam pugnabo. Plaut. 

25. Pdrdndmdsia is the use of words which resemble each other in sound ; 
as, Amor et melle et felle est fecundissimus. Plaut. Civem bondrum artium, 
bondrum partiuin. Cic. Amantes sunt amentes. Ter. This figure is sometimes 
called agndmlnatio. 

26. Hdmozoprdpheron or alliteration is the use in the same sentence of sev- 
eral words beginning with the same letter; as, Tite, tule Tdti, tlbi tanta t 
tyranne, tulisti. Enn. Neu patriae vdlidas in viscera vertite vires. Virg. 

27. Antithesis is the placing of different or opposite words or sentiments in 
contrast; as, Hiijus ordtionis difficilius est exitum quam principium invenire. 
Cic. Caesar beneficiis ac mumficentia, magnus hdbtbdtur ; integritate vltae 
Cato. Sail. 

28. Oxymoron unites words of contrary significations, thus producing a seem- 
ing contradiction; as, Concordia discors. Hor. Quurn tdcent, ctdmant. Cic. 

29. Synonymia is the use of different words or expressions having the. same 
hnport ; as, Non feram, non pdtiar, non sinam. Cic. Prdmitto, recipio, spon- 
ieo. Id. 

81* 



366 APPENDIX. TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. § 325. 

30. Pardbdla or Simile is the comparison of one thing with another; as, Re- 
pente ie, tamquam serpens e latibulis, oculis eminentibus, infldto collo, tumidis cer- 
vicibus, intulisti. Cic. 

31. Erotesis is an earnest question, and often implies a strong affirmation of 
the contrary ; as, Greditis dvectos hostes ? Virg. Heu ! quae me eequdra possunt' 
accipere? Id. 

32. Epdnortkdsis or Correctio is the recalling of a word, in order to place a 
stronger or more significant one in its stead ; as, Filium unicum ddolescentiilum 
habeo : ah 1 quid dixi ? me habere ? Imo habui. Ter. 

33. Aposidpesis, Reticentia, or Interruptio, is leaving a sentence unfinished 
in consequence of some emotion of the mind; as, Quos ego — sed motos vrtestat 
componere fiuctus. Virg. 

34. Prdsdpopceia or personification represents inanimate things as acting or 
speaking, and persons dead or absent as alive and present; as, Quce (patria) 
tecum, Cdtillna, sic dgit. Cic. Virtus sumit aut ponit secures. Hor. 

35. Apostrdphe is a turning off from the regular course of the subject, to ad- 
dress some person or thing; as, Vipdlitur; quid non mortdlia pectdra cogis, 
auri sacra fames ! Virg. 

36. Pdrdleipsis is a pretended omission of something, in order to render it 
more observed. See Cic. Cat. 1, 6, 14. 

37. Epiphdnema or Accldmdtio is an exclamation or grave reflection on some- 
thing said before ; as, Tantce mdlis erat Romanam condere gentem. Virg. 

38. Ecphdnesis or Exclamatio shows some violent emotion of the mind ; as, 
tempera ! mores ! 

39. Aporia, Didporesis, or Dubitdtio, expresses a doubt in regard to what is 
to be said or done ; as, Quos accedam, aut quos appellem ? SaU. 

40. Pr6lepsis is the anticipation of an objection before it is made, or of an 
event before it occurs; as, Verum anceps pugms fuerat fortiina. Fuisset: 
Quern metui moritura ? Virg. 

§ 32c>. To the figures of rhetoric may be subjoined the follow- 
ing terms, used to designate defects or blemishes in style : — 

1. Barbarism is either the use of a foreign word, or a violation of the rules 
orthography, etymology, or prosoc 7 
domminus, for ddminus ; davi, for dedi. 



of orthography, etymology, or prosody ; as, rigdrdsus, for rigidus or severus ; 
s, for d 



2. Solecism is a violation of the rules of syntax ; as, Venus pulcher ; vos invi- 
demus. 

3. Neoterism is the use of words or phrases introduced by authors living 
subsequently to the best ages of Latinity ; as, murdrum, a murder ; constdduld- 
rius, a constable. 

4. Tautology is a repetition of the same meaning in different words ; as, Jam 
vos aciem, ei proelia, et hostem poscitis. Sil. 

5. Amphibdlia is the use of equivocal words or constructions ; as, Gallus, a 
Gaul, or a cock. Aio te, JEdcida, Romanos vincere posse. Quint. 

6. Idiotism is a construction peculiar to one or more languages: thus, the 
ablative after comparatives is a Latin ism. When a peculiarity of one language 
is imitated in another, this is also called idiotism. Thus, Mitte mihi verbum, 
instead of Fac me cerlidrem, is an Anglicism. 



§ 326. APPENDIX. ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING TIME. 367 

ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING. 

I. OF TIME. 

1. The Roman Day. 

§ 320* (1.) With the Romans, as with us, the day was either 
civil or natural. Their civil day, like ours, extended from midnight 
to midnight. The natural day continued from sunrise to sunset, as, 
on the other hand, the night extended from sunset to sunrise. The 
natural day and night were each divided into twelve equal parts or 
hours, which were consequently of different length, according to the 
varying length of the days and nights in the successive seasons of the 
year. It was only at the equinox that the diurnal and nocturnal 
hours of the Romans were equal to each other, as each was then 
equal to the twenty-fourth part of the civil day. 

(2.) In the Roman camp the night was further divided into four 
watches (ingllice), consisting each of three Roman hours, the second 
and fourth watches ending respectively at midnight and at sunrise. 

2. The Roman Month and Year. 

(1.) The calendar of the Romans, as rectified by Julius Csesar, 
agreed with our own in the number of months, and of the days in 
each, according to the following table : — 

Januarius . 31 days. Maius . . 31 days. • September 30 days. 

Februarius 28 or 29. Junius. . 30 " October . . 31 " 

Martius. . . 31 days. Quintllis 31 " November 30 " 

Aprilis . . . 30 " Sextllis.31 " December 31 " 

In early times the Roman year began with March, and the names 
Quintllis, Sextllis, September, etc., indicated the distance of those 
months from the commencement of the year. Quintllis and Sextllis 
were afterwards called Julius and Augustus in honor of the firsc two 
emperors. The Romans, instead of reckoning in an uninterrupted 
series from the first to the last day of a month, had in each month 
three points or periods from which their days were counted — the 
Calends, the Nones, and the Ides. The Calends (Cdlendce), were al- 
ways the first day of the month. The Nones (Nonce), were the fifth, 
and the Ides (Idus), the thirteenth; except in March, May, July, and 
October, when the Nones occurred on the seventh day, and the Ides 
on the fifteenth. 

(2.) They always counted forward, from the day whose date was 
to be determined, to the next Calends, Nones, or Ides, and desig- 
nated the day by its distance before such point. After the first day 
of the month, therefore, they began to reckon so many days before 
the Nones ; after the Nones, so many days before the Ides ; and after 
the Ides, so many before the Calends, of the next month. 

Thus, the second of January was denoted by quarto Nonas Jdnudrias, or 
Januarii, scil. die ante: the third, tertio Nonas; the fourth, pt-ldie Nonas; 
and the fifth, Nonis. The sixth was denoted by octavo Idus ; the seventh, 



368 APPENDIX. ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING — TIME. § 326. 

septimo Idus ; and so on to the thirteenth, on which the Ides fell. The four- 
teenth was denoted by undevlgesimo Cdlendas Februarias, or Februarii ; and so 
on to the end of the month. 

(3.) The day preceding the Calends, Nones, and Ides, was termed 
pridie Calendas, etc., scil. ante : in designating the other days, both 
the day of the Calends, etc., and that whose date was to be deter- 
mined, were reckoned ; hence the second day before the Calends, 
etc., was called tertio, the third quarto, etc. 

(4.) To reduce the Roman calendar to our own, therefore, when 
the day is between the Calends and the Nones or between the Nones 
and the Ides, it is necessary to take one from the number denoting 
the distance of the given day from the Nones or the Ides, and to sub- 
tract the remainder from the number of the day on which the Nones 
or Ides fell in the given month. 

Thus, to determine the day equivalent to IV. Nonas Januarias, we take 
1 from 4, and subtract the remainder, 3, from 5, the day on which the Nones 
of January fell (i. e. 4 — 1=3, and 5 — 3=2): this gives 2, or the second of Jan- 
uary, for the day in question. So VI. Idus Apruis : the Ides of April falling 
upon the 13th, we take (6 — 1, i. e.) 5 from 13, which leaves 8 (i. e. 6 — 1=5, 
and 13 — 5=8): the expression, therefore, denotes the 8th of April. 

(a.) In reckoning the days before the Calends, as they are not the 
last day of the current month, but the first of the following, it is 
necessary to subtract two from the number denoting the distance of 
the given day from the Calends of the following month, and to take 
the remainder from the number of days in the month. 

Thus, XV. Cal. Quintlles is 15—2=13, and 30—13=17, i. e. the Roman date 
XV. Cal. Quint, is equivalent to the 17th of June. 

(b.) To reduce our calendar to the Roman, the preceding method 
is to be reversed. Thus when the given day is between the Calends 
and the Nones or between the Nones and the Ides, (unless it be the 
day before the Nones or the Ides),, we are to add one to the number 
denoting the day of the month, according to our reckoning, on which 
the Nones or Ides fell. But if the day is after the Ides, (unless it be 
the last day of the month), we must add two to the number of days 
in the month, and then subtract the number denoting the day of the 
month as expressed in our reckoning. The remainder will be the 
day before the Nones, Ides or Calends. 

Thus to find the Roman date corresponding to the third of April, we have 
5+1 — 3=3; the required date, therefore, is ///. Non. Apr. — To find the proper 
Roman expression for our tenth of December we have 13+1 — 10=4; the date, 
therefore, is IV. Id. Dec. — The Roman expression for the 22d of August, in 
pursuance of the above rule, is found thus, 31+2 — 22=11, and the date is XL 
Cal. Sept. 

(5.) In leap year, both the 24th and 25th of February were called 
the sixth before the Calends of March. The 24th was called dies 
bisextus, and the year itself annus bisextus, bissextile or leap year. 

(a.) The day after the Calends, etc., was sometimes called postridie calen- 
das, etc. 

(&.) The names of the months are properly adjectives, though often used as 
nouns, mensis being understood. 






§ 326. APPENDIX. — ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING — TIME. 369 

(6.) The correspondence of our calendar -with that of the Romans 
is exhibited in the following 

TABLE. 



Days of 


Mar. Mai. 


Jan. Aug. 


Apr. J un. 




our months. 


Jul. Oct. 


Dec 


Sept. Nov. 


Febr. 


1 


Calendar. 


Calendar. 


Calendar. 


Calendar. 


2 


VI. Nonas. 


IV. Nonas. 


IV. Nonas. 


IV. Nonas. 


3 


V. 


III. " 


III. " 


III. 


4 


IV. " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


5 


III. " 


Non 33. 


Nonas. 


Nonaa. 


6 


Pridie Non. 


VIII. Idus. 


VIII. Idus. 


VIII. Idus. 


7 


Nonas. 


VII. " 


VII. " 


VII. " 


8 


VIII. Idus. 


VI. " 


VI. " 


VI. 


9 


VII. " 


V. 


V. " 


V. 


10 


VI. " 


IV. " 


IV. " 


IV. " 


11 


V. " 


in. « 


III. " 


III. " 


12 


IV. " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


13 


III. " 


Idus. 


Idus. 


Idus. 


14 


Pridie Id. 


XIX. Cal. 


XVni. Cal. 


XVI. Cal. 


15 


Idus. 


xvin. « 


xvn. " 


. XV. " 


16 


XVII. Cal. 


XVII. « 


XVI. " 


XIV. " 


17 


XVI. " 


XVI. « 


XV. « 


XIII. " 


18 


XV. " 


XV. " 


XIV. " 


XII. " 


19 


XIV. " 


XIV. " 


XIII. " 


XI. " 


20 


XIII. " 


XIII. " 


XII. » 


X. " 


21 


XII. " 


XII. « 


XI. " 


IX. " 


22 


XI. 


XI. 


X. " 


VIII. " 


23 


X. " 


X. " 


IX. " 


VII. " 


24 


IX. " 


IX. " 


VIII. " 


VI. " 


25 


VIII. " 


VIII. " 


VII. " 


V. « 


26 


VII. " 


VII. " 


VI. " 


IV. « 


27 


VI. «.' 


VI. » 


V. " 


III. " 


28 


V. 


V. " 


IV. " 


Pridie "Mar 


29 


IV. « 


IV. « 


III. " 




30 


III. 


III. " 


Pridie Cal. 




31 


Pridie Cal. 


Pridie Cal. 







(7.) In leap-year the last seven days of February were reckoned thus: — 

23. Vn. Calendas Martias. 27. IV. Cal. Mart. 

24. bisexto Gal Mart. 28. III. " " 

25. VI. Cal. Mart. 29. pridie Cal. Mart. 

26. V. " " 

(a.) Hence in reducing a date of February in leap-year to the Roman date, 
for the first 23 days Ave proceed according to the preceding rule in 4, (6.), as if 
the month had only 28 days. The 24th is marked as bisexto Cal. Mart., and to 
obtain the proper expression for the remaining five days we regard the month 
as having 29 days. Thus the 27th of February in leap-year is 29+2 — 27=4, 
and the proper Roman expression is IV. Cal. Mart. 

(b.) On the other hand, to reduce a Roman date of February in leap-year to 
onr date we reverse the above process, and during the Nones and Ides and 
until the VII. Calendar }f<rrlias we reckon the month to have only 28 davs: — ■ 
bisexto Cul. Mart, is set down as the 24th, and for the remaining days desig- 
nated as VI. V. IV. III. and pridie, Ccd. Mart, we reckon the month to have 
29 days. Thus ///. Cal. Mart, is 3—2=1, and 29—1=28, and the given day is 
equivalent to the 28th of February. 



370 APPENDIX. — ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING MONET. § 327. 

(8.) The Latins not only said tertio, prldie, etc., Oalendas, etc., but also ante 
diem tertium, etc., Oalendas, etc.; and the latter form in Cicero and Livy is 
far more common than the former, and is usually written thus, a. d. III. 
Cal., etc. 

(9.) The expression ante diem was used as an indeclinable noun, and is 
joined with in and ex; as, Consul Latlnas ferias in ante diem tertium Idas Sex- 
tilis edixit, The consul appointed the Latin festival for the third day before the 
Ides of August. Liv. Supplicatio indicia est ex ante diem quintum Jdus Octobres. 
Id. So, Ad pridie Nonas Maias. Cic. 

(10.) The week of seven days (Jiebddmas), was not in use among the Komans 
under the republic, but was introduced under the emperors. The days of the 
week were then named from the planets ; dies Solis, Sunday ; dies LUiwe, Mon- 
day; dies Martis, Tuesday; dies Mercurii, Wednesday; dies Jovis, Thursday; 
dies Veneris, Friday; dies Sdturni, Saturday. 

(11.) The term nundinm (from ndvem — dies) denotes the regular market day 
at Rome when the country people came into the city; but it is not used for the 
purpose of denoting the period of eight days intervening between two succes- 
sive market days. 

(12.) The year at Rome was designated by the names of the consuls for 
that year. Thus Virgil was born, M. Licinio Crasso et On. Pompeio Magno 
consulibus, i. e. in the year of the consulship of Crassus and Pompey. But in 
Roman authors events are often dated from the year in which Rome was 
founded, which, according to Varro, was in the 753d year before the birth 
of Christ. This period was designated as anno wbis conditas, and by ab- 
breviation, a. u. c, or simply u. a, and sometimes by a. alone, before the 
numerals. 

Thus the birth of Yirgil was a. u. c. 684. To reduce such dates to our reckoning, if 
the given number is less than 754, we subtract it from the latter number, and the dif- 
ference is the required year before Christ. The birth of Yirgil therefore is 754 — 684=70 
before Christ. — But if the number of the Roman year exceeds 753, we deduct 753 from 
the given number, and the remainder is the year after Christ. For example, the em- 
peror Augustus died a. u. c. 767, and the corresponding year of our era is 767 — 753=14. 



n. TABLES OF MONEY, WEIGHT, AND MEASURE. 
Of the As. 

§ 3ST. The Romans used this word (As) to denote, I. The copper coin, 
whose value (in the time of Cicero) was about one cent and a half of our 
money. II. The unit of weight (libra), or of measure (jugerum). III. Any 
unit or integer considered as divisible ; as, of inheritances, interest, houses, etc. ; 
whence ex asse heres, one who inherits the whole. The multiples of the As are, 
Dupondius (duo pondo ; for the As originally weighed a pound), i. e. 2 Asses ; 
Sestertius (sesqui tertius), i. e. 2£ Asses; Tressis, i. e. 3 Asses; Quatrussis, i. e. 
4 Asses; and so on to Centussis, i. e. 100 Asses. The .4s, whatever unit it re- 
presented, was divided into twelve parts or undo,, and the different fractions 
received different names, as follows: 



TJncia. 

As 12 

Deunx 11 

Dextans 10 

Dodrans 9 

Bes 8 

Septunx 7 

Semis 6 



TJncia 

Quincunx 5 

Triens 4 

Quadrans, or Teruncius 3 

Sextans 2 

TJncia 1 



Sescuncia li 



§ 327. APPENDIX. TABLES OF MONET, WEIGHT, ETC. 371 

The Uhcia was divided in the following manner: — 

1 Uncia contained 2 Semuncise. 

" " 3 Duelke. 

" " 4 Slcilici. 

" " 6 Sextulaj. 

" " 8 Drachma3. 

" " 24 Scrupula. 

" " 48 Oboli. 

Roman Coins. 

These were the Teruncius, Sembella, and As or Llbella, of copper; the Ses- 
tertius, Quinarius (or Victoridtus), and Denarius, of silver; and the Aureus, 
of gold. 

$ Cts. M. 

The Teruncius 3.9 

2 Teruncii make 1 Sembella 7.8 

2 Sembella " 1 As or Llbella 1 5.6 

2£ Asses* " 1 Sestertius 3 9 

2 Sestertii " 1 Quinarius 7 8 

2 Qulnarii " 1 Denarius 15 6 

25 Denarii " 1 Aureus 3 90 

♦Sometimes also (in copper) the triens, sextans, uncia, sextilla, and diipondius. 

Roman Computation of Money. 

Sestertii Nummi. 

$ Cts. M. 

Sestertius (or mimmus) 3 9 

Decern sestertii 39 

Centum sestertii 3 90 

Mille sestertii (equal to a sestertium) 39 

Sestertia. 

Sestertium (equal to mille sestertii) 39 

Decern sestertia . 390 

Centum, centum sestertia, or centum millia sestertium 3900 

Decies sestertium, or decies centena millia nummum 39000 

Centies, or centies h. s 390000 

Millies H. s 3900000 

Millies centies h. s 4290000 

N. B. — The marks denoting a Sestertius nummus are IIS., LLS., HS., which are pro- 
perly abbreviations for 2 12 asses. Obserre, also, that when a line is placed over the 
numbers, centena millia is understood, as in the case of the numeral adverbs ; thus, H. S. 

MC. is millies centies HS. ; whereas IIS. MC. is only 1100 Sestertii. 

Roman Calculation of Intekest. 

The Romans received interest on their loans monthly, their highest rate be- 
ing one per cent, (centesima), a month, i. e. 12 per cent a year. As this was 
the highest rate, it was reckoned as the as or unit in reference to the lower 
ratc=, which were denominated, according to the usual division of the as, semis- 
tes, trientes, quddrantes, etc., i. e. the half, third, fourth, etc., of the as or of 
12 per cent, according to the following table : — 



372 APPENDIX. — TABLES OF MONEY, WEIGHT, ETC. § 327. 



Per cent, a year. 

usurae or centesimse 12 

Semisses usurae 6 

Trientes usurae 4 

Quadrantes usurae 3 

Sextantes usurae 2 

Unciae usurae 1 

Quincunces usurae 5 

Septunces usurae 7 

Besses usurae 8 

Dodrantes usurae 9 

Dextantes usurae 10 

Deunces usurae 11 



Roman Weights. 

Oz. Dwts. Gr. 

Siliqua 3.036 

3 Sihquae make 1 Obolus 9.107 

2 Oboli " 1 Scrupulum 18.214 

3 Scrupiila " 1 Drachma 2 6.643 

1} Drachma " 1 Sextula 3 0.857 

1* Sextula " 1 Slcilicus 4 13.286 

1} Slcilicus " 1 Duella 6 1.714 

3 Duellae " 1 Uncia 18 5.143 

12 Unciae " 1 Libra* (As) ... 10 18 13.714 

*The Libra was also divided, according to the fractions of the As, into Deunx, etc. 

Roman Measures for Things Dry. 



Ligiila 

4 Ligulae make 1 Cyathus 

1£ Cyathus " 1 Acetabulum.. 

4 Acetabula" 1 Hemina 

2 Heminae " 1 Sextarius .... 
16 Sextarii " 1 Modius 1 



English Corn Measure. 


Peck. Gal. 


Pint. 


Sol. in 





1-48 


0.01 





1-12 


0.04 





1-8 


0.06 





1-2 


0.24 





1 


0.48 



7.C 



Roman Measures for Things Liquid. 

English Wine Measure. 

Galls. Pints. Sol. in. 

Ligiila 1-48 0.117 

4 Ligulae make 1 Cyathus 1-12 0.469 

1 J Cyathus " 1 Acetabulum 1-8 0.704 

2 Acetabula " 1 Quartarius 1-4 1.409 

2 Quartarii " 1 Hemlna 1-2 2.876 

2 Heminae " 1 Sextarius* 1 5.636 

6 Sextarii " 1 Congius 7 4.942 

4 Congii " 1 Urna 3 4 1-2 5.33 

2 Urnae " 1 Amphora (or Quadrantal) . 7 1 10.66 

20 Amphorae " 1 Culeus 143 3 11.095 

* The Sextarius was also dMded into twelve equal parts, called cy&thi, and therefore 
the catices were denominated sextantes, quadrantes, trientes, according to the number of 
cyathi which they contained. 

N. B.— CMus, congiarius, and dolium, are the names of certain vessels, not measures, 
of capacity. 



§ 327. APPENDIX. TABLES OF MONEY, WEIGHT, ETC. 



373 



Roman Measures of Length. 

English 
paces. 

Digitus transversus 

1 1-5 Digitus make 1 Uncia 

3 Uncise " 1 Palmus minor. ... 

4 Paluri mlnores " 1 Pes 

1 1-4 Pes " 1 PalmTpes 

1 1-5 Palmipes " 1 Cubitus 

1 2-3 Cubitus " 1 Gradus 

2 Gradus " 1 Passus 

125 Passus " 1 Stadium 120 

8 Stadia " 1 Milliarium 967 



Feet. 


Inch. Dec. 





0.725 1-4 





0.967 





2.901 





11.604 


1 


2.505 


1 


5.406 


2 


5.01 


4 


10.02 


4 


4.5 









Roman Square Measures. 

Roman English 

sq. feet. rods. Sq. pis. Sq. feet. 

Jugerum(As) 28,800 2 18 250.05 

Deunx 26,400 2 10 183.85 

Dextans 24,000 2 02 117.64 

Dodraus 21,600 1 34 51.42 

Bes 19,200 1 25 257.46 

Septunx 16,800 1 17 191.25 

Semis 14,400 1 09 125.03 

Quincunx 12,000 1 01 58.82 

Triens 9,600 32 264.85 

Quadraus 7,200 24 198.64 

Sextans 4,800 16 132.43 

Uncia 2,400 08 66.21 

Remark 1. The Romans reckoned their copper money by asses, 
their silver money by sestertii, and their gold money by aurei and 
sometimes by Attic talents. 

Rem. 2. The as, as the unit of money, was originally a pound of copper, 
but its weight was gradually diminished, until, in the later days of the repub- 
lic, it amounted to only l-24th of a pound. 

Rem. 3. (a.) The denarius was a silver coin, originally equal in value to ten 
asses, whence its name ; but, after the w r eight of the as was reduced, the dena- 
rius was equal to eighteen asses. 

(b.) The sestertius, or sesterce, was one fourth of the denarius, or two asses 
and a half (scmistertius). The sestertius was called emphatically nummus, as in 
it all large sums were reckoned after the coining of silver money. 

[e.) The aureus (a gold coin), in the time of the emperors, was equal to 25 
denarii, or 100 sesterces. 

Rem. 4. In reckoning money, the Romans called any sum under 2000 ses- 
terces so many sestertii ; as, decern sestertii, ten sesterces ; centum sestertii, a 
hundred sesterces. 

Rem. 5. Sums from 2000 sesterces (inclusive) to 1,000,000, they denoted 
either by mille, millia, with sestertium (gen. plur.), or by the plural of the 
neuter noun sestertium, which itself signified a thousand sesterces. Thus they 
said quadra f/inta millia sestertium, or quadraginta sestertia, to denote 40,000 
sesterces. With the genitive sestertium, millia was sometimes omitted; as, 
teslertium centum, scil. millia, 100,000 sesterces. 

Rem. 6. To denote a million, or more, they used a combination; thus, decies 
centena mUHa $esterti&m, 1,000,000 sesterces. The words centena millia, how- 
ever, were generally omitted; thus, decies sestertium, and sometimes merely 
decks. See § 118, 5. So, centies, 10 millions; millies, 100 millions. 
32 



374 



APPENDIX. ABBREVIATIONS. 



§ 328, 329. 



Rem. 7. Some suppose that sestertium, when thus joined with the numeral adverbs, is 
always the neuter noun ia the nominative or accusative singular. The genitive and ab- 
lative of that noun are thus used; as, Decies sestertii dote, With a dowry of 1,000,000 
6esterces. Tac. Quiiiquagies sestertio, 5,000,000 sesterces. Id. But this usage does not 
occur in Cicero. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 

§ 338. The following are the most common abbreviations of 
Latin words : — 



A., Aldus. 

C, Caim, or Gaius. 

Cn., Cneils. 

D., Decimus. 

L., Lucius. 

M., Marcus. 



A. d., ante diem. 

A. U. C, anno urbis con- 
ditoz. 

Cal., or Kal., Calendar. 

Cos., Consul. 

Coss., Consules. 

D., Dlvus. 

D. D., dono dedit. 

D. D. D., dai, dicat, dedi- 
cate or dono dicat, de- 
dicat. 

Des., desiqnatus. 

D. M., diis mdnibus. 

Eq. Rom., eques Rdmanus. 



M. T. C, Marcus TuUius Q., or Qu. ; Quintus. 

Cicero. Ser., Servius. 

M., Mdnius. S., or Sex., Sextus. 

Mam., Mdmercus. Sp., Spurius. 

N., Numerius. T., Titus. 

P., Publius. Ti., or Tib., Tiberius. 



F., Filius ; < as, M. F., 

Marci filius. 
Ictus, jurisconsultus. 
Id., ic&s. 
Imp., imperdtor. 
J. O. M., Jdvi, qptimo 

maximo. 
N., nepos. 
Non., Nonce. 
P. C, patres conscripti. 
PI., plebis. 
Pop., populus. 
P. R., populus Rdmanus. 



Pont. Max., pontzfex 

maximus. 
Pr., prostor. 
Proc, proconsul. 
Resp., respublica. 
S., salutem, sacrum, or 

sercatas. 
S. D. P., sdlutem dlcit 

plurimam. 
S. P. Q. R., Sendtus ptipu- 

lusque Rdmanus. 
S. C, senates consultum. 
Tr., tribunus. 



To these may be added terms of reference; as, c, cqp«2, chapter; c/*., confer, 
compare; 1. c, &?co citato; I. 1., loco laudato, in the place quoted; v., versus, 
verse. 



DIFFERENT AGES OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 



§ o5s If. l. Of the Roman literature for the first five centuries after the 
foundation of the city, but few vestiges remain. The writers of the succeed- 
ing centuries have been arranged in four ages, in reference to the purity of 
the language in the period in which they flourished. These are called the 
golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages. 

2. The golden age is reckoned from the time of Livius Andronicus, about 
A. U. C. 514, to the d,eath of Augustus, A. U. C. 767, or A. D. 14, a period 
of a little more than 250 years. The writers of the early part of this age are 
valued rather on account of their antiquity, and in connection with the his- 
tory of the language, than as models of style. It was not till the age of 
Cicero, that Roman literature reached its highest elevation. The era com- 
prehending the generation immediately preceding, and that immediately suc- 
ceeding, that of Cicero, as well as his own, is the period in which the most 
distinguished writers of Rome flourished; and their works are the standard of 
purity in the Latin language. 



§329. 



APPENDIX. WRITERS IN DIFFERENT AGES. 



375 



3. The silver age extended from the death of Augustus to the death of 
Trajan, A. D. 118, a period of 104 years. The writers of this age were inferior 
to those who had preceded them; yet several of them are worthy of com- 
mendation. 

4. The brazen age comprised the interval from the death of Trajan to the 
time when Rome was taken by the Goths, A. D. 410. From the latter epoch 
commenced the iron age, during which the Latin language was much adulter- 
ated with foreign Avords, and its style and spirit essentially injured. 

5. The body of Latin writings has been otherwise arranged by Dr. Freund, 
so as to be comprised in three main periods, — the Ante-classical, 'Classical, and 
Post-classical. The ante-classical extends from the oldest fragments of the 
language to Lucretius and Varro; the classical from Cicero and Cassar to 
Tacitus, Suetonius, and the younger Pliny inclusive; the post-classical from 
that time to the fifth century of our era. The classical Latinity is subdivided 
into (a.) Ciceronian, {b.) Augustan, (c.) post-Augustan, and to the language of 
the fourth and fifth centuries he has given the title of late Latin. 



LATIN WRITERS IN THE DIFFERENT AGES. 



(From the Lexicon of Facciolatus.) 
WRITERS OF THE GOLDEN AGE. 



Livius Andronlcus. L. Cornelius Sisenna. 



Laevius. 
C. Nsevius. 

Statius Cascilius. 
Q. Ennius. 
M. Pacuvius. 
L. Accius. 
C. Lucilius. 
Sex. Turpilius. 
L. Afranius. 



P. Nigidius Figulus. 
C. Decius Laberius. 
M. Verrius Flaccus. 

Varro Attacinus. 

Titinius. 
L. Pomponius. 
C. Sempronius Asellio. 
Cn. M'atius. 



Q. Novius. 
C. Q. Atta. 
L. Cassius Hemlna. 

Fenestella. 
Q. Claud. Quadrigarius. 

Coelius Antipater. 

Fabius Pictor. 
Cn. Gellius. 
L. Piso, and others. 



Of the works of the preceding writers, only a few fragments remain. 



M. Porcius Cato. 
M. Accius Plautus. 
M. Terentius Afer. 
T. Lucretius Cams. 
C. Valerius Catullus. 
P. Syrus. 
C. Julius Caesar. 
C. Cornelius Nepos. 
M. Tullius Cicero. 



Sex. AureliusPropertius. 
C. Sallustius Crispus. 
M. Terentius Varro. 
Albius Tibullus. 
P. Virgilius Maro. 
T. Livius. 
M. Manillas, 
M. Vitruvius. 



P. Ovidius Naso. 
Q. Horatius Flaccus. 
C. Pedo Albinovanus. 

Gratius Faliscus. 

Phaedrus. 
C. Cornificius. 
A. Hurtius, or Oppius. 
P. Cornelius Severus. 



To these may be added the following names of lawyers, whose opinions are 
found in the digests: — 



Q. Mutius Scasvola. 
Alfenus Varus. 



M. Antistius Labeo. 



Masurius Sabinus. 



Of the writers of the golden age, the most distinguished are Terence, Catul- 
lus, Casar, Nepos, Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, T. Livy, and Sallust. 



376 



APPENDIX. WRITERS IN DIFFERENT AGES. 



§329. 



WRITERS OF THE SILVER AGE. 



A. Cornelius Celsus. 
P. Velleius Patercvilus. 
L. Junius Moderatus 
Columella. 
Pomponius Mela. 
A. Persius Flaccus. 
Q. Asconius Pedianus. 
M. Annseus Seneca. 
L. Annseus Seneca. 



M. Annseus Lucanus. 
T. Petronius Arbiter. 
C. Plinius Secundus. 
C. Silius Itallcus. 
C. Valerius Flaccus. 

C. Julius Sollnus. 

D. Junius Juvenilis. 
P. Papinius Statius. 
M. Valerius Martialis. 



M. Fabius Quintilianus. 

Sex. Julius Frontlnus. 

C. Cornelius Tacitus. 

C. Plinius Csecilius Se- 
cundus. 

L. Annseus Floras. 

C. Suetonius Tranquil- 
lus. 



The age to which the following writers should be assigned is somewhat un- 
certain : — 



Q. Curtius Rufus. 
Valerius Probus. 



Scribonius Largus. 
Sulpitia. 



L. Fenestella. 
Atteius Caplto. 



Of the writers of the silver age, the most distinguished are Celsus, Velleius, 
Columella, the Senecas, the Plinies, Juvenal, Quintilian, Tacitus, Suetonius, 
and Curtius. 



WRITERS OF THE BRAZEN AGE. 



A. Gellius. 

L. Apuleius. 

Q. Septimius Tertullia- 

nus. . 
Q. Serenus Sammoni-r 
cus. 
Censorlnus. 
Thascius Caacilius 
Cyprianus. 
T. Julius Calpurnius. 
M. Aurelius Nemesianus. 
iElius Spartianus. 
Julius Capitollnus. 
iElius Lampridius. 



Vulcatius Gallicanus. 

Trebellius PoUio. 

Flavius Vopiscus. 

Coelius Aurelianus. 

Flavius Eutropius. 

Rhemnius Fannius. 

Arnobius Afer. 
L. Coelius Lactantius. 

iElius Donatus. 
C. Vettus Juvencus. 

Julius Firmlcus. 
Fab. Marius Victorinus. 
Sex. Rufus, or Rufus 
Festus. 



Ammianus Marcel- 

llnus. 
Vegetius Renatus. 
Aurel. Theodoras Macro- 

bius. 
Q. Aurelius Symmachus. 
D. Magnus Ausonius. 
Paullnus Nolanus. 
Sex. Aurelius Victor. 
Aurel. Prudentius Cle- 
mens. 
CI. Claudianus. 

Marcellus Empiricus. 
Falconia Proba. 



Valerius Maximus. 
Justlnus. 



Of an Age not entirely certain. 



Terentianus Maurus. 
Minutius Felix. 



Sosipater Charisius. 
Flavius Avianus. 



The opinions of the following lawyers are found in the digests :- 



Licinius Prociilus. 
Neratius Priscus. 
P. Juventius Celsus. 
Priscus Jabolenus. 
Domitius Ulpianus. 



Herennius Modestinus. 
Salvius Julianus. 
Caius. 
Callistratus. 
iEmilius Papinianus. 



Julius Paulus. 
Sex. Pomponius. 
Venuleius Saturnlnus. 
jElius Marcianus. 
iElius Gallus, and others. 



Of the writers of the brazen age, Justin, Terentianus, Victor, Lactantius, 
and Claudian, are most distinguished. 

The age to which the following writers belong is uncertain. The style of 
some of them would entitle them to be ranked with the writers of the preced- 
ing ages, while that of others would place them even below those of the iron 
age. 



§329. 



APPENDIX. WRITERS IN DIFFERENT AGES. 



377 



Palladius Rutilius Tau- 
rus iEmilianus. 

JSmilius Macer. 

Messala Corvlnus. 

Vibius Sequester. 

Julius Obsequens. 

L. Ampelius. 

Apicius Ccelius. 

Sex. Fompeius Festus. 

Probus (auctor Nota- 
rum.) 

Fulgentius Planciades. 

Hyginus. 

C. Caesar Germanlcus. 

P. Victor. 

P. Vegetius. 



Auct5res Priapeiorum. 

Catalecta Virgilii et 
Ovidii. 

Auctor orationis Sallustii 
in Cic. et Ciceronis iu 
Sail.; item illius A'iie- 
quam Iret in exsilium. 

Auctor Epistolae ad Oc- 
tavium. 

Auctor Panegyrici ad 
Pisonem. 

Declamationes quaj tri- 
buuntur Quintilia.no, 
Porcio Latroni, Calpur- 
nio Flacco. 



Interpres Daretis Phry- 

gii, et Dictyos Cre- 

tensis. 
Scholiasts? Veteres. 
Grammatlci Antlqui. 
Rhetores Antlqui. 
Medici Antlqui. 
Catalecta Petroniana. 
Pervigilium Veneris. 
Poematia et Epigramma- 

ta Vetera a Pithceo col- 

lecta. 
Monumentum Ancyra- 

num. 
Fasti Consulares. 
Inscriptiones Vetgres. 



WRITERS OF THE IRON AGE. 



CI. Rutilius Numatianus. 
Servius Honoratus. 
D. Hieronymus. 
D. Augustmus. 
Sulpicius Severus. 
Paulus Orosius. 
Coelius Sedulius. 
Codex Theodosianus. 
Martianus Capella. 
Claudianus Mamertus. 
Sidonius Apollinaris. 



Latlnus Pacatus. 

Claudius Mamertlnus, et 
alii, quorum sunt Pan- 
egyrici veteres. 

Alcimus Avitus. 

Manl. Severinus Boe- 
thius. 

Priscianus. 

Nonius Marcellus. 

Justiniani Institutions 
et Codex. 



Ruf. Festus Avienus. 
Arator. 

M. Aurelius Cassidorus. 
Fl. Cresconius Corippus. 
Venantius Fortunatus. 
Isidorus Hispalensis. 
Anonymus Ravennas. 
Aldhelmus or Althelmus. 
Paulus Diaconus. 



82* 



INDEX. 



The figures in the following Index designate the Sections and their divisions : R. stands 
for remark, N. for note, e. for exception, w. for with, and pr. for prosody. 



A, sound of, 7 and 8"; nouns in, of 1st 
decl., 41; gender of, 41; of 3d decl. gender 
of, 66; genitive of, 68, 2; in ace. sing, of 
masc. and fern. Greek nouns, 79 and 80; 
in nom. ace. and voc. plur. of all neuter 
nouns, adjectives and participles, 40, 8; 
83, i. ; 85 ; 87 ; 105, 2 ; verbals in, 102, 6, (c.) ; 
change of in compd. verbs, 189; increment 
in, 3d decl., 287, 3; in plur., 288; of verbs, 
290; ending the first part of compds., 285, 
r. 4 ; final-, quantity of, 294. 

A, ab, abs, how used, 195, R. 2, and 10 ; 
in composition, 196, I., 1; before the abl. 
of distance, 236. R. 6; ab, de, or ex, with 
abl. of depriving, etc., 251, R. 1. 

Abbreviations, 328. 

Abdico, constr. of, 251, R. 2. 

Abest miki, 226, R. 2; non rnultum abest 
quin, 262, N. 7. 

Abhivc, 253, R. 2. 

Ablative, 37; sing. 3d decl., 82; of adjs. 
of 3d decl., 113; plur. 1st decl., 40, r. 6, 
and 43; 2d decl., 40, R. 6; 3d decl., 84; 4th 
decl., 89,5; used adverbially, 192, i., n. ; 
of character, quality, etc., 211, R. 6; after 
prepositions, 241; after compd. verbs, 242; 
after opus and usus, 243; after digitus, etc. 
244; after utor. etc., 245, I. ; after nitor, 
etc., 245, n.; after parts, denoting origin, 
246; of cause, etc., 247; of means and 
agent, 248 ; of means, 249, i. ; of accord- 
ance, 249, n. ; of accompaniment, 249, ni. ; 
denoting in what respect, 250; after adjec- 
tives of plenty or want, 250, 2, (1.); after 
verbs of abounding, etc., 250, 2, (2.); after 
facio and sum, 250, R. 3 ; after verbs of de- 
priving, etc.. 251; of price, 252; of time 
when, 253; of place where, 254; of place 
whence, 255, 1; of place by or through 
which, 255,2; after comparatives, 256 ; of 
degree of difference, 256, R. 16; abl. abso- 
lute, 257; how translated, 257, n. 1; equiv- 
alent to what, 257, R. 1 ; only with pres. 
and perf. parts., 257, R. 2; without a parti- 
ciple, 257, R. 7; with a clause, 257, R. 8; 
how it marks the time of an action, 256, 
r. 4; noun wanting, 256, R. 9. 

Abounding and wanting, verbs of, with 
abl. 250; with gen. 220, (3.) 



"About to do," how expressed, 162, 14; 
"about to be done," how expressed, 162, 
14, R. 4. 

Abstineo, w. abl., 251, N. ; vix or cpgre ab- 
stineo, quin, 262, N. 7. 

Abstract nouns, 26 ; formation from adjs., 
101; their terminations, 101, 1 and 2, (3.); 
from verbs, 102. 

Abundo, 250, (2.)r. 1. 

-abus, dat. and abl. plur. in, 43. 

Ac or atque, 198, 1, R. (b.) and 2, R. ; in- 
stead of quam, 256, R. 15; ac si with subj. 
263, 2, and r. 

Acatalectic verse, 304, 3. (1.) 

Accent in English, 16; place of secondary 
accent, 16, 1 and 2; in Latin, 14 and 15; 
of dissyllables, 14, 4; of polysyllables, 14, 
4, and 15 — written accents, 5, 2, and 14, 2. 

Accentuation. 14 — 16. 

Accidents of nouns, 26, 7; of verbs, 141. 

Accipio, w. part, in dus, 274, R. 7. 

Accompaniment, abl. of, 249, in. 

Accordance, abl. of, 249, n. 

Achivom for Achivorum, 53. 

-acis, genitives in. 78, 2, (1.) 

Accusative, 37; sing., terminal letter of 
in masculines and feminines, 40, 2; plural, 
terminal letter of in do.. 40, 7; of 3d decl., 
79; of Greek nouns, 80; plur. 3d decl., 85; 
do. of adjs. of 3d decl., 114; neuter in all 
declensions, sing and plur., 40, 8; in em 
and im, 79 ; of Greek nouns in hn, in, or a, 
79, (b.) and 80; in idem, 80, e. 1; in ym or 
yn, 80, n. ; in ea, 80, m. ; in etem, eta, cm, 
or en, 80, rv. ; neuter used adverbially, 192, 
n., 4, and 205, R. 10; ace. after verbs, 229— 
234 ; omitted, 229, r. 4 ; inf. or a clause in- 
stead of, 229, R. 5; of a person after miseret, 
etc., 229, r. 6; after jui-at, etc., 229, r. 7; 
after neater verbs, 232; after compound 
verbs, 233; after verbal nouns and verbal 
adjs., 233, n.; of part affected, 234, n.; a 
limiting ace. instead of the abl. in partim, 
vicem, cetera, etc., 234, n., R. 3; after pre- 
positions, 235; of time and space. 236; of 
place, 237; after adverbs and interjections, 
238; ace. as subject, 239; ace. of the thing 
supplied by the inf., 270, N., ace. w. inf., 
272; do. exchanged for the subjunctive, 



INDEX. 



379 



273. 3.— two accusatives after certain verbs, 
230 and 231; ace. of thing retained in pas- 
give voice. 234; places supplied by infini- 
tives, 229, N. 2; pred. ace. how supplied, 
ib. n. 4. 

Accusing and acquitting, verbs of, constr., 
217, and R. 4. 

Accuso, constr., 217. and R. 2 — 5. 

Acephalous verse. 304, 3, (3.) 

Acer, declined, 108, i. 

Achilles, declined, 86. 

Acquiesco. 245, n., 3. 

Acute accent, 5, 2, and 14, 2 ; when used, 
14.3. 

Active voice, 141. 

Active verb, 141 ; used impersonally, 184, 
2 ; object of act. verb, 229 : two cases after, 
229, r. 1 ; verb omitted, 229, r. 3. 

Ad, how used, 195. r. 5 ; in composition, 
196, I. 2; construction of verbs compound- 
ed with, 224 ; ad used for in, 224, r. 4. 

Adde quod, 273, >'. 8. 

Additions to simple subject, 202, 6, etc. ; 
to simple predicate, 203, 5, etc. 

Adeo, adv.. 191, r. 5 ; adeo non, 217, r. 
14.— verb, constr., 233, 3, and N. 

-odes, patronymics in, 100, 1, (a.) 

Adest, qui, with subj., 264, 6. 

Adhuc locorum. 212. si. 4, N. 4. 

Adipiscor, w. gen., 220, 4 fin. 

Adjectives, 104—131 ; classes of, 104, 1— 
15 : declension of, 105 ; of 1st and 2d decls. 
105—107 ; of 3d declension, 108—114 ; of 
three terminations, 108 ; of two termina- 
tions, 109, 110 : of one termination, 111 ; 
their gen. sing., 112; their abl. sing. 113; 
their iiom., ace. and gen. plur., 114 ; irreg- 
ular. 115 — 116 ; defective. 115 : redundant. 
116 : numeral. 117—121 : cardinal, 117. 118 ; 
ordinal. 119. 120 ; multiplicative, 121, 1 ; 
proportional. 121, 2 ; temporal, 121, 3 ; in- 
terrogative. 121, 5 : comparison of, 122 — 
127 : irregular comparison, 125 ; defective 
comparison. 126 ; derivation of, 128 — 130 ; 
composition of, 131 : amplificative. 128, 4 ; 
patrial. 128, 6 ; verbal, 129 ; participial, 
130 ; composition of 131 ; — how modified, 
202, ii., 1. (2.) : agreement of, 205 ; quali- 
fying and limiting, 205, N. 1 ; modifiers or 
predicates. 205. >'.2; with two or more 
nouns. 205, R. 2 ; with a collective noun, 
205. R. 3 ; sing, with a plur. noun, 205, 
R. 4; dat. of, for ace. in the predicate of 
ace. with the inf.. 205, R. 6; without a 
noun. 205. R. 7 ; with infinitive, a clause, 
etc.. 205, R. 8 : in the neuter with gen. of 
their noun, 205, R. 9. and 212, r. 3 ; neuter 
adjs. used adverbially, 205, r. 10 ; gender 
of. when used partitively, 205, R. 12 : in 
genitive with possessive adj. or pronoun, 
205. R. 13: agreeing with the governing 
noun instead of the genitive, 205, R. 14 ; 
two or more with one noun. 205, R. 16; 
instead of an adverb. 205, R. 15 ; first, last, 
etc. part expressed by the adj. alone, 205, 
r. 17 : agreeing with relative instead of its 
antecedent. 206, (7.); with gen. 213: w. 
gen. or abl.. 213. r. 5 ; w. dat., 222: w. 
gen. or dat., 213, r. 6, and 222, r. 2; of 



plenty or want with abl., 250 ; w. inf. 270, 
r. 1 ; place of, 279. 7. 

Adjective pronouns, 134 — 139; nature of, 
132, 5; classes, 134: agreement, 205. 

Adjective clauses, 201, 7: how connect- 
ed, 201, 9. 

Adjunctive pronoun, 135. R. 1. 

Adjuvo and adjuto, constr., 223. r. 2. (2.) 

Admonishing, verbs of, w. gen. 218 ; other 
constructions, 218. R. 1 and 2; 273. N. 4. 

Adolcscens. its gender, 30; as adj. how 
compared. 126. 4. 

Adorning, verbs of, w. abl., 249. 

Adonic verse, 312. 

Adulnri, constr., 223. R. 2, (b), and (1), (a.) 

Adverbial correlatives. 191, R. 1 ; — clauses, 
201. 7. 9. 

Adverbs, 190, 2—194; primitive, 191; of 
place and order, 191, T. ; correlative, 191, 
n. 1 ; of time, 191, ii. ; of manner, quality, 
degree, 191, in. ; division of, 191, r. 2 ; — 
derivation of. 192 ; numeral, 192, ji., 3, 
and 119 ; diminutive, 192, iv., r. : compo- 
sition of, 193 ; signification of some adverbs 
of time and manner, 193 ; — comparison of, 
194; — how modified, 277, i. ; used as adjec- 
tives, 205, R. 11; w. gen.. 212, r. 4: w. 
dat., 228, (1.): w. ace, 238; use of. 277; 
two negatives, force of, 277, R. 3 — 5; equiv- 
alent to phrases, 277, R. 8; of likeness, as 
connectives. 278, R. 1; place of 279, 15. 

Adversative conjunctions, 198, 9. 

Adversus, how used, 195, R. 7. 

M. how pronounced. 9. 

JEqualis, construction of, 222, R. 2. 

JEque with abl., 241, r. 2; ceque ac, 198, 
3, R. 

JEqui boni facio or consulo, 214, N. 1. 

JEquo and adce.quo, construction of, 214; 
cequo, adj. w. comparatives, 256, R. 9. 

Aer. ace. of, 80. r. : pr. 299, e. 3. 

iFx)lic pentameter, 312, ix. 

^s. gender of, 61, 2: gen. of, 73, E. 2. 

JEstimo, constr., 214. 

JEther, ace, 80. R. ; pr. 299, e. 3. 

-(pus, adjs. in, 128, 6, (k.) 

JEquitm est, ut, 262, p.. 3, N. 2; csquum 
erat, indie, instead of subj., 259, r. 3; 
atquum est, with inf. as subject, 269, R. 2. 

Affatim, w. genitive. 212, r. 4. 

Affluo, constr., 250, 2, r. 1. 

Afficio, constr., 249, R. 1. 

Affinis. constr.. 222, R. 2, (a.) 

Ager. declined, 46. 

Agent, verbal nouns denoting, 102, 6; 
dative of, 225, in., R. 1; 248, r. 1; abl. 
of, 248. 

Ages of Roman literature, 329. 

Agnitus. pr. 285. 1, e. 1. 

Agnominatio, 324. 25. 

Ago w. gen. of the crime, 217, R. 1; — 
ase w. plur. subject, 183, 10 ; — id agere ut, 
273. x. 1. 

Agreement defined. 203, in., 6; of adjs., 
etc.. 205: of relatives. 206. 

Ai. how pronounced. 9. 1. — a'i. old gen. 
in, 43; quantity of the a in do., 283, e. 3. 

Aio, conjugated, 183, 4; ain ) for aisne; 
ait. elipsis of, 209, r. 4; its place in a sen- 
tence, 279, 6. 



380 



INDEX. 



-al, abl. of nouns in, 82; increment of, 
287, e. (a.) 1. 

Alcaic Terse, 304,2; — greater, 318, in. ; 
lesser, 318, iv. 

Alcmanian verse, 304, 2 ; — dactylic tetra- 
meter, 312. 

Alec, gender of, 66 ; genitive, 70. 

Ales, gender of, 30 and 61, 2; genitive 
eing., 73, 2; gen. plur., 83, ii., r. 2. 

Alex, gender of, 65, 2. 

Alieno, and abalieno, constr., 251, R. 3, 
and n. 

Alienus, constr., 222, R. 1 and 6. 

Aliquanto, 127, 2 ; 256, R. 16, (2.) 

Aliquantum, 256, R. 16, N. 

Aliquis, declined, 133 ; how used, 138, 2 ; 
207, R. 30. 

Aliquo, w. gen., 212, R. 4, n. 2. 

Aliquot, indeclinable, 115, 4; correlative, 
121, 5. 

Aliquoties, correlative of quoties, 121, 5. 

-alis, adjs. in, 128, 2; how compared, 126, 
4; alis, old adj., for alius, 192, n., 2. 

Aliter, from alis for alius, 192, n., 2. 

Alius, how declined, 107 ; how used, 207, 
R. 32; alius — alium, with plur. verb, 209, 
R. 11, 4; refers to more than two, 212, r. 2, 
K. 1, (b.); w. abl., 256, R. 14; pr. 283, 1, 
E. 4. 

Allegory. 324, 7. 

Alliteration, 324, 26. 

Alphabet, 2, 1. 

Alter, how declined, 105, 3 : 107, and r. 2 ; 
gen. alterius, quantity of 283, I., E. 4, (b.); 
used for secundus, 120, 1 ; answers to uter, 
139, 5, (1.), (b.) — altero tanto, w. compara- 
tives, 256, r. 16. 

Alteruter, 107; 139, 5, (1.), (b.)—alteru- 
terque, 107. 

Altus and alto, w. ace. of space, 236, and 
N. 2. 

Ambi, amb, am, or an, 197, (&.) 

Ambio, how conjugated, 182, r. 3. — ambi- 
tus, pr. 285, 2, e. 2. 

Ambo, how declined, 118, R. 1. 

Amicus, constr., 222, R. 2. (c.) 

Amo, conjugated, 155, 156. 

Amphibolia, 325, 5. 

Ampliflcatives, nouns, 100, 4, (a.); adjec- 
tives, 104,12; 128,4. 

Amplius, with or without quam, 256, R. 6. 

An, 198, 11; use of, 198, 11, R. {d.), (e.); 
265, R. 2 and 3 ; an— an, 265, R. 2. 

Anabasis, 324, 22. 

Anacoluthon, 323, 3, (5.) 

Anacreontic verse, 304, 2 ;— iambic dime- 
ter, 314, ix. 

Anadiplosis, 324, 17. 

Analysis of sentences, 281. 

Anapaestic metre, 313; 303 ;— monometer, 
813, i. ;— dimeter, 313. 

Anaphora, 324, 13. 

Anastrophe, 324, 4, (1.) 

Anas, gen. of. 72, e. 1 ; pr. 300, E. 1. 

Anceps, gen. of, 112, 2; abl. of, 113, E. 3. 

Ancile, 93, 2. 

Androgeos, declined, 54, 1. 

-aneus, adjs. in, 128, 8. 

Angor, constr., 273, 6, N. 6. 

Animal, declined, 67. 



Animans, gender of, 64. 

Animo, 250. — animi for animo,, 220,1: 
213, r. l,(o.) 

Anio, genitive of, 69, e. 2. 

Anne, in double questions, 265, R. 2;— 
annon, ib. 

Annus, compds. of, 121, 3. 

Antanaclasis, 324, 12. 

Ante, w. superlatives, 127, 6; in compo- 
sition, 196, i., 3; construction of verbs 
compounded with, 224; with titles, 235, R. 
3; with comparatives, 256, r. 13, (6.); — 
ante and post w. ace. and abl. of time, 253, 
R. 1; w. quam and a verb, 253, N. 3; for 
abhinc, 253, R. 2. 

Antecedent, 136; ellipsis of, 206, (3.),(4.); 
its place supplied by a demonstrative, 206, 
3, (a.); in the case of the relative, 206. (6.), 
(&.); implied in a poseessive pronoun, 206, 
(12); may be a proposition, 206, (13.) 

Antecedo and antecello, constr., 256, R. 
16, (3.) 

Antepenult, 13 ; quantity of, 292. 

Antequam, constr., 263, 3. 

Antimeria, 323, 3, (1.) 

Antiphrasis, 324, 10. 

Antiptosis, 323, 3, (3.) 

Antithesis, 322 ; 324, 27. 

Antonomasia, 324, 8. 

-anus, adjs. in, 128, 6. 

Aorist tense, 145, iv., R. 

Apage, 183, 10. 

Apertum est, w. inf. as subject, 269, R. 2. 

Aphaeresis. 322. 

Apiscor and adipiscor, w. gen., 220. 

Aplustre, nom. plur. of, 83 and 94, 4. 

Apocope, 322.— Apodosis, 261. 

Apollo, gen. of, 69, e. 2. 

Aposiopesis, 324, 33. 

Apostrophe, 324, 35. 

Apparet, w. inf. as subject, 269, R. 2. 

Appellative nouns, 26, 3. 

Appello, constr., 230, n. 1. 

Appetens, w. gen., 213, R. 1, (2.) 

Appendix, 322—329. 

Apposition, 204 ; to two or more nouns, 
204, R. 5; to nouns connected by cum, 204, 
r. 5, (1.); to proper names of different gen- 
ders, 204, R. 5, (2.); genitive instead of, 
204, R. 6; 211, R. 2, n.; abl. with gen., 204, 
r. 7; of a proper name with no?nen, etc., 
204, R. 8 ; of a clause, 204, R. 9 ; of parta 
with a whole, 204, r. 10; 212, r. 2, n. 5; 
place of nouns in apposition, 279, 9. 

Apprime, 127, 2; 193. 

Aptotes, 94. 

Aptus, constr., 222, R. 1 and 4, (1.) ; aptus 
qui, w. subj., 264, 9; w. gerund, 275, R. 2 
and 3. 

Apud, 195, R. 6. 

-ar, nouns in, gender of, 66, 67 ; genitive 
of, 70, 71 ; abl. of, 82 ; increment of, 287, 
e. (a.) 1. 

Arbitrcr, in imperf. subj., 260, R. 2. 

Arbor (-os). gender of, 61. 

Arceo, w. abl., 251, R. 2. 

Arcesso, constr., 217, R. 1. 

Archaism, 323, R., (1.) 

Archilochian verse, 304, 2;— penthemi- 
meris, 312;— iambic trimeter, 814, v.; do. j 



INDEX. 



381 



dimeter, 314, vn. ;— heptameter, 318, iv. 

Arena, as gen. of place, 221, R. 3, (4.) 

Argo, genitive of, 69, E. 3. 

Argos {-gi), 92, 4. 

Arguo. constr., 217, R. 1. 

Aristophanic verse, 304, 2. 

-arium and -arius, nouns and adjs. in, 
100,8; 128,3; 121.4. 

Arra ngement of words, 279 ; poetical, 279, 
N. 4; of clauses, 280. 

Ars, declined, 57. 

Arsis and thesis, 308. 

Article, wautiug in Latin, 41, N. 

-as, genitives in, 43; nouns in of 3d dec!., 
gender of, 62; genitive of. 72; gen. plur. of, 
83, ii., 4; in ace. plur. of Greek nouns of 

3d decl.. 85, E. 2. as and -anus, adjs. in, 

12S. 6; -as final, quantity of, 300. 

As. value of. 327; how divided, 327; — 
gender of, 62, e. 1 ; 72, e. 1 ; gender of parts 
ending in ns, 64, 2 ; assis non habere, 214, 
R. 1. 

Asclepiadic verse, 304, 2; — tetrameter, 
316, in. 

Asking, verbs of, with two aces., 231; 
constr. in the pass., 234, I. 

Aspergo, 249, i. and r. 1 and 3. 

Aspirate, 3, 1. 

Asseuunr, ut, 273, N. 2. 

-asso for -avero, 162, 9. 

assuesco and assuefacio, w. abl., 245, II. ; 
w. dat.. 245, ii.. R. 1. 

Asyndeton. 323, 1, (1.) 

-at, roots of nouns in, 56, n., R. 5. 

At, conj., 198, 9; at enim, atqui, 198, 
9, (b.) 

-atim, adverbs in, 192, t., 1. 

Atque. composition and meaning, 198, 1, 
R. (b.) See ac. 

Attraction, 206, (6.); 209, n. 6 and R. 8; 
210, R. 6; 272, n. 3. 

Attribuo, w. participle in dus, 274, R. 7. 

-atus, adjs. in, 128, 7. 

Au, how pronounced. 9, 2 and R. 2. 

Audeo, how conjugated, 142, R. 2. 

Audio, conjugated. 160: used like appel- 
lor, 210, n. 2; constr., 272, n. 1; audes for 
audies, 183, R. 3; — audiens, constr., 222, 
R. 1. 

-aus, nouns in, gender of, 62; genitive 
of, 76, e. 4. 

Ausculto, constr., 222, R. 2, (&.), and (1.), 
(a.) 

Ausim, 183, r. 1. 

Aut and vei, 198, 2, r. (a.); aut and re, 
198, 2. R. (a.); aut— aut, 198, 2, R. (e.); 
aut with the singular, 209. R. 12, (5.) 

Autem, 198, 9; its position, 279, 3, (c); 
ellipsis of. 278, r. 11. 

Authority, in prosody, 282, 4. 

Auxiliary verb, 158. 

-av and -atu in the 2d and 3d roots of 
verbs 164. 

Avarus, with gen., 213, R. 1. 

Ave. 183, 8. 

Avidus. with gen. 213, R. 1: w. gen. of 
gerund, 275, (2.); w. inf. poetically, 270, 
R. 1. 

-ax, nouns in, gen. of, 78, 2, (1.); adjs. 
In, 129, 6; verbals in with gen., 213, R. 1. 



B. 



B, roots of nouns ending in, 56, I. J 
changed to p., 171, 2. 

Balneum, plur. -ea or -ece, 92, 6. 

Barbarism, 325, 1. 

Barbiton, declined, 54, 1. 

Belle, bellissime, 192, IV. R. 

Belli, construed like names of towns, 221, 
r. 3; bello,2o3. 

Bene, derivation, 192, ii., 1; constr. of 
its compounds, 225, I.; bene est, w. dat., 
228, 1; bene, w. ace, 239, r. 2; with verbs 
of price, 252, r. 3. 

•her, names of months in, how declined, 
71 and 108. 

Bes, gen. of, 73, e. 2. 

Bibi. pr.. 284, e., (1.) 

Bicorpor, abl. of, 113, E. 2; 115, 1, (a.) 

Birluum, triduum, etc., bitnnium, etc., 
121,2. 

-bilis. adjs. in, 129, 4; how compared, 
126. 4; with dative, 222, r. 1. 

Bi?nestris, 113, E. 1. 

Bipes, genitive of, 112, 1; abl. of, 113, 
e. 2; 115,1, (a.) 

Bonus, declined, 105, 2; compared, 125, 
5; boni consulo, 214, n. 1. 

Bos, dat. and abl. plur. of, 84, E. 1; 286, 
5; gender of, 30; genitive of, 75, e. 1; gen. 
plur., 83, ii., r. 1. 

-br, roots of nouns in, 56, II., R. 3. 

Brachycatalectic verse, 304, 3, (2.) 

Brazen age of Roman literature, 329, 4. 

-brum, verbals in, 102, 5. 

Bucolic caesura, 310, 6, R. 4. 

-bulum, verbals in, 102. 5. 

-bundus, adjs. in, 129, 1; comparison of, 
126,5; with ace, 233, n. 



C. 



C, sound of, 10; before s in roots of 
nouns, 56, I., R. 2; in roots of verbs, 171, 1; 
gender of nouns in, 66; genitive of, 70; 
c final, quantity of, 299, 4 ; C. for Caius, 
i. q. Gaius, 328. 

Calebs, 112, 2; in abl. sing., 113, E. 2: 
115, 1, (a.) 

Caesura, 309 ; kinds of, 309 ; in hexameter 
verse, 310, 3; caesural pause, 309, 3; in 
hexameter verse, 4 — 6; in pentameter verse, 
311, 2 ; in iambic verse, 314, i. and x. ; in 
trochaic verse, 315, i ; in choriambic verse, 
316, m. 

Calco, change of a to u in its compds., 
189, n. 3. 

Calendar, Roman, 326, 6. 

Calends, 326. 

CaUidus, 270, r. 1 ; 213, R. 1. 

Canalis, abl. of, 82, 5, (c.) 

Cano receptui, 227, R. 2. 

Capax, w. genitive, 213, R. 1. (1.), and 
R. 5, (1.) 

Cajno, conjugated, 159; adjs. compound- 
ed of, 112, 2. 

Capital letters, how used by the Romans, 
2, 2; as numerals, 118, 7. 

Caput declined, 57; capitis and capite, 
damnare, accusare, etc., 217, R- 3. 



382 



INDEX. 



Carbasus, plur. -f and -a, 92, 3. 

Cardinal numbers, 117 and 118. 

Careo, 250, 2, r. 1. 

Carmen, declined, 57. 

Caro, gender of, 59, 3; gen. of, 69, E. 2; 
gen. plur., 83, n., 5. 

Carthagini, in abl. of the place where, 82, 
B. 5, (c.) 

Case-endings, table of, 39. 

Cases of nouns, 36 and 37. 

Casus recti and obliqui, 37, R. 

Causa, gratia, etc. with mea, etc., 247, 
R. 2; their place with genitive, 279, R. 

Causal conjunctions, 198, 7. 

Cause, abl. of, 247; after active verbs, 
247, R. 2; ace. of with prepositions, 247, 

R. 1. 

Causo, change of au in its compounds, 
189, n. 3. 

Cave or cave ne, w. subj., 267, R. 3; 262, 
N. 3. 

-ce and -cine, enclitic, 134, R. 4. 

Cedo, constr., 223, r. 2, (1), (d.) 

Cedo, imperative, 183, 11. 

Celer, how declined, 108; gen. plur., 114, 
B. 2. 

Celo, with two aces., 231; w. de, 231, R. 3. 

Censeo, 273, N. 4. 

Centena rnillia, ellipsis of, 118, 5. 

-ceps. nouns in, gen. of. 77, R ; adjs. in, 
gender of, 112, 2 ; abl. of, 113, E. 2, and E. 3. 

Ceres, genitive, of, 73, e. 2. 

Certe and certo, 192, N. 1. 

Certus, 213, r. 1; 275, in., (2.); 270, R.l. 

Cetera and reliqua for ceteris, 234, n., R.3. 

Ceterum, 198, 8, R., (b.) 

Ceu, w. subj., 263, 2. 

Ch, sound of, 10, 1 ; when silent, 12, R. ; 
in syllabication, 18, 2. 

Character or quality, gen. of, 211, R. 6. 

Chaos, 61, E. 3. 

Chelys, declined, 86. 

Choliambus, 314, n. 

Choriambic metre, 316; 303; — pentame- 
ter, 316, I. ; — tetrameter, 316, n. ; — trime- 
ter, 316, iv. ; — trimeter catalectic, 316, V. ; — 
dimeter, 316, vr. 

Cicur, gen. plur. of, 114, e. 2. 

Circum, in composition, 196, 4. 

Circumdo and circumfundo, 249, R. 3. 

Circumflex accent, 15, 2, and 14; how 
used, 14, 3. 

Cis and citra, constr., 235, R. 1. 

Citerior. compared, 126, 1. 

Chum, pr., 284, e. 1, (2.) 

Clam, constr., 235, (5.) 

Clanculum, 192, iv., r. ; 235, (5.); 126,1. 

Claudo, its compounds, 189, n. 3. 

Clause, 201, 13; as the subject of a pro- 
position, 202, in., r. 2; as an addition to 
the predicate, 203, n., 3; its gender, 34, 4; 
as the object of a verb, 229, r. 5 ; in abl. 
absolute, 256, r. 8; connection of clauses, 
198, i. and n. ; 278, R. 1; 280, m. ; arrange- 
ment of, 280 ; similar clauses, 278, N. 1. 

Climax, 324, 21. 

Clothing, verbs of, 249, t. 

Calestis, abl. of, 113, k. 1; gen. plur. of, 
114, e. 3. 

Calum, plur. cali, 92, 4. 



Cozno, w. gen. of price, 214, N. 1, (b.) 

Ccepi and captus sum, 183, 2. 

Cognate object, 232 ;— subject, 234, HI. 

Cognitus, pr., 285, 2, e. 1. 

Cognomen follows the gentile name, 279. 
9, (b.) 

Cognominis, abl. of, 113, E. 1. 

Cogo, 273, N. 4. 

-cola, compounds in, gen. plur. of, 43, 2. 

Collective nouns, 26, 4; number of their 
verbs, 209, r. 11. 

Com for cum in composition, 196, 5; 
197, 5. 

Comitiis, as abl. of time, 253, n. 1. 

Common, nouns, 26, 3; — gender, 30; — 
syllables, 282, 2; 283, iv., e. 2. 

Commoneo and commonefacio, constr., 
218; 273, n. 4. 

Communis, constr., 222, r. 2, (a.) and R. 
6, (a.) 

Commuto, constr., 252, r. 5. 

Compar., gen. plur. of, 114, E. 2. 

Comparo, constr., 224, N. 1, 3. 

Comparative conjunctions, 198, 3. 

Comparative degree, 122, 5 ; uses of, 122, 
R. 1, 2, 3; formation of, 124; by magis, 
127, 1. — comparatives declined, 110; abl. 
sing, of, 113, 2; w. gen., 212, r. 2,; denotes 
one of two, 212, r. 2., n. 1; w. abl., 256; 
used pleonastically, 256, R. 12, 13. 

Comparison, 25; of adjs., 122 — 127; de- 
grees of, 122, 3 ; terminal, 124 ; — irregular, 
125 ; defective, 126 ; by magis and maxime, 
127;— of adverbs, 194. 

Complex subject, 202, 1, 3, 6; complex 
predicate, 203, 1, 3, 5 ; complex sentence, 
201, 11. 

Complures, how declined, 110. 

Compono, constr., 224, n. 1, 3, and r. 4. 

Compos and impos, gen. of. 112, 2 ; abl. 
of, 113, e. 2; 115, 1, (a.); pr. 300, e. 3. 

Composition of nouns, 103; — of adjs., 
131 ;— of verbs, 183 ;— of adverbs, 193. 

Compound verbs, how conjugated, 163, 
4;— subject, 202, 4;— predicate, 203, 4;— 
sentence, 201, 12 ; — metres, 318 ; — words, in 
syllabication, 23; — nouns, declension of, 
91 ; how formed, 103 ; quantity of compd. 
words, 285. 

Con, adjs. compd. with, w. dat., 222, r. 1 ; 
verbs compd. with, w. dat., 224; w. cum, 
224, R. 4. 

Concedo, constr., 273, sr. 5: 274, R. 7. 

Concessive conjunctions, 198, 4. 

Concors, and discors, gen. of, 112, 2 ; abl. 
of, 113, e. 2. 

Concrete, nouns, 26, R. 2. ;— adjs., 101, 
R. ; used for abstracts, in expressions of 
time, 253, r. 6. 

Conditio, in abl., 249, n. 

Conditional conjunctions, 198, 5. 

Conduco, with part, in dus, 274, R. 7. 

Condemning, verbs of, w. gen., 217. 

Confero, w. dat, 224, N. 1, 3. 

Confido, w. abl., 245, n. ; w. dat., 245, R. 1. 

Confit. 183, 12; 180, N. 

Conjinis, 222, R. 1. 

Congruo, 224, n. 1, 3, and r. 4. 

Conjugation, 25; 149; first, 155, 156; 
second, 157; third, 158, 159; fourth, 160; 



INDEX. 



383 



Of deponent verbs, 161 ; periphrastic, 162 ; 

General rules of, 163; of irregular verbs, 
78—182; of defective verbs, 183; of imper- 
sonal verbs, 184; regular and irregular 
verbs in tbe four conjugations, 164 — 177. — 
conjugations, how characterized, 149; re- 
marks on, 162. 

Conjunctions, 198; classes of, 198; coor- 
dinate, 198, i. ; subordinate, 198, n. ; encli- 
tics, 198, N. 1; copulative and disjunctive, 
their use, 278 ; use of coordinate and sub- 
ordinate conjs., 198, R. 1; repeated, 278, 
R. 7; when omitted between adjs., 205, R. 
16 ; — between words opposed, 278, R. 6. 

Conjungo, 224, K. 1, 3, and R. 4. 

Conjunctus, 222, r. 6. 

Conjux, gender of, 30: gen. of, 78, 2, (5.) 

Connecting Towel, 150, 5; omitted in 2d 
root, 163, 2; in verbal nouns, 102, 5,(6.); 
in verbal adjs., 129, land 4, (b.); in compd. 
nouns and adjs., 103, R. 1. ; 131, N. 

Connection of tenses, 258 ; — of words by 
conjunctions, 278;— of clauses by do., 278, 
B. 3. 

Connectives, 201, 8, 9 ; place of, 279, 3. 

Conor, 271, N. 1. 

Consents, 213, R. 1; 275, in., (2.) 

Consentaneus, w. dat., 222, r. 1, w. abl., 
222, r. 6: co?isentaneu?n erat, the indie, in- 
stead of the subj., 259, r. 3, (a.); with inf. 
as subject, 269, r. 2. 

Consent™, w. dat., 224, N. 1, 3. 

Consequor. ut. 273, N. 2. 

Con si do, 241, R. 5. 

Consonants. 3. 1; division of, ib. ; double, 
3,1,2; sounds of, 10—12. 

Consors, 213, K. 1. 

Constat, w. inf. as subject, 269, r. 2. 

Constituo, 272, *r. 1. 

Consto, w. abl., 245, II., 5. 

Consuetiulo est, constr., 262, R. 3, N. 2. 

Consuesco, 245. n., 3. 

Contendo, 273, n. 1. 

Contentus, w. abl., 244; w. perf. inf., 268, 
R. 2. 

Conterminus, w. dat., 222, r. 1, (a.) 

Coniinens, abl. of, 82, e. 4, (a.) 

Continental pronunciation of Latin, 6. 

Contingit, conjugation, 184; w. ut, 262, 
R. 3 ; w. dat. and inf., 262, r. 3, N. 1. 

Continuo, 193. n., 1. 

Contra, how used, 195, R. 7. 

Contracted syllables, quantity of, 283, til. 

Contractions in 2d root of verbs, 162, 7. 

Convenio, 233, n. 

Convenit, the indie, for the subj., 259, 
E. 3; w. inf.. 269, R. 2. 

Convinco, 217, R. 1. 

Copia est. w. inf., 270, R. 1, (c.) 

Copula, 140, 4. 

Copulative conjs., 198,1; repeated, 198, 
R. (e.) 

Cor, gender of, 61; genitive of, 71, e. 2; 
compds. of, 112, 2. 

Correlative adjs,, 139, (2.), (3.); 104, 14;— 
adverbs, 191, r. 1. 

Cornu, declined, 87. 

Crasis. 306. (5.) and 322. 

Crater, genitive of, 71. 

Credo, 272, and r. 6;— crederes, in the 



sense of a pluperfect, 260, n., R. 2;— ere- 
dendum est, 271, R. 2. 

Creo, nascor, etc., 246, R. 1. 

Crime, in genitive after verbs, 217. 

Crimine, without a preposition, 217, R. 
2, (6,) 

Crude form or root. 40, 10. 

-crum, verbals in, 102, 5. 

Ct, initial, 12, 3. 

Cui and huic, how pronounced, 9, 5 ; pr. 
306, R. 2. 

Cnjas, how declined, 139, 4, (b.) 

Cujus, how declined, 137, 5 ; cujusmodi, 
etc., 134, r. 5. 

-cidum, verbals in, 102, 5 ; contracted to 
-clum, 102, 5, (6.) 

-cuius, a, um, diminutives in, 100, 3, and 
B., 1,2;' 128, 5. 

Cum, prep., affixed to abl.. 241, R. 1; 
133, R. 4 ; 136, R. 1 ; how used, 195, R. 11 ; 
w. abl. of manner, 247, 2 ; in composition, 
196, 5. 

Cum or quum , mood of the verb following 
it, 263, 5. 

Cum, ' while,' 263, 5, R. 4. 

-cumque, used to form general indefinites, 
191, r. 1, (&.); 139, 5, R. ; composition and 
meaning, 139, 5, n. 1; sometimes separated 
from qui, etc., 323, 4, (5.) 

Cumprimis, its meaning, 193, II., 2. 

Cuncti and omnes, w. gen. plur. 212, 
R.2, n. 6. 

-cundus, adjs. in, 129, 1. 

Cupido, gender of, 59, r. 2. 

Cupidus, constr., 213, R. 1; 275, (2.); 
270, r. 1. 

Cupio, 271, R. 4; enpiens, 213, R. 1, (2.) 

Curo, 273, N. 1; 274, R. 7; curaut, 267, 

R.3. 

Curritur, conjugated, 184, 2, (b.) 
Custos, gender of, 30 ; 61, 3 j genitive, 76, 

E. 1. 



D final in prosody, 299, 2; before s in 
roots of nouns, 56, r. 1 ; in roots of verbs, 
171, 3, and e. 5. 

Da, pr., 284, r. 2, (b.) 

Dactylic metre, 310 and 303; — trimeter, 
312, vi.; — dimeter, 312, vh. ;— hexameter, 
310, I. Dactylico-iambic meter, 318, I. ; dac- 
tylico-trochaic heptameter, 318, iv. ; — tetra- 
meter, 318, v. 

Dama, gender of, 42, 2. 

Damni infecti satisdo, etc., 217, R. 3. 

Dative, 37; sing, of 3d decl., 79; plur. 
always like abl., 40, 6; exceptions in do. 
1st decl., 43; of 3d decl., 84; of 4th decl., 
89, 5; used for predicate nom. ? 210, N. 3; 
for gen., 211, r. 5; commodi et xncommodi, 
222, 1 and 2; dative of the end, 227; dat. 
of the object, after adjs., 222; different con- 
structions instead of, 222, r. 4 and 6 ; after 
idem, 222, r. 7 ; after verbs, 223—227 ; after 
verbs compounded with ad, ante, etc., 224; 
with ab, ex, de, circum and contra, 224, R. 1 
and 2; with dis, 224, R. 3: with Satis, bene 
and male, 225, 1. ; dat. of the agent, 225, n. 



384 



INDEX. 



and in.; of the possessor after est, 226; 
after particles, 228; dat. with the ace, 223, 
(1.); two datives after sum, etc., 227; want- 
ing, 225, in., R. ; dativus ethicus, 228, n. 

Datum, pr., 284, e. 1, (2.) 

De, 195, R. 12; with abl. instead of ace, 
229.R. 5, (6.); 231, r. 3. 

Dea, dat. and abl. plur. of, 43. 

Debebat, indie, instead of subj., 259, R. 3. 

Decedo, w. abl., 251. 

Decerno, 273, n. 1 and 4. 

Decet, conjugated, 184 ; its construction, 
229, r. 7; 223, r. 2,(6.); indie, for subj., 
259, r. 3. 

Declarative sentences, 200, 3. 

Declaro, 230, n. 1. 

Declension, 38; parts of speech declined, 
25, 3; of nouns, 38-^0; rules of, 40; first, 
41 — 45; exceptions in do., 43; paradigms 
of, 41 ; — second, 46 — 54 ; paradigms of, 46 ; 
exceptions in do., 52; third, 55—86; para- 
digms of, 57; exceptions in do., 68—85; 
fourth, 87—89; paradigms of. 87; excep- 
tions in do., 89; formed by contraction, 89 ; 
fifth, 90; paradigms, 90; exceptions in. 90; 
—of adjs., 1st and 2d. 105—107 ; third, 108— 
111 ;— declensions, how distinguished, 38; 
tabular view of, 39. 

Dedi, pr., 284, 2, E. 1. 

Deest mihi, 226, R. 2; pr., 306, 1, R. 1, (1.) 

Defective nouns, 94—96; — adjs., 115; — 
verbs, 183. 

Defehdo, 251, R. 2. 

Defero, w. gen. of the crime, 217, R. 1. 

Deficior. w. abl., 250, 2, k. 1. 

Be fit, 183, 13, and 180, N. ; 226, R. 2. 

Beflecto, 229, r. 4. 

Befungor, 245, i. 

Degree, ace. of, 231, R. 5; 232, (3.) 

Degrees of comparison, 122 and 123; in- 
ferior degrees, 123, 1; equal degrees, 123, 3; 
a small degree, 123, 2 ; superior degrees va- 
riously expressed, 127, 2, 3, 4. 

Dejero, 189, n. 3; pr., 285, 2, e. 1. 

Dein, deinceps, deinde, pr., 306, 1, R. 
1, (1.) 

Belectat, conjugated, 184; its construc- 
tion, 229, r. 7 ; 223, r. 2. 

Belector, w. quod, 273, n. 6. 

Beligo, w. two aces., 230, N. 1. 

-dem, enclitic, 134, R. 6. 

Demonstrative adjs., 104, 15; 139, 5, R.; 
— pronouns, 134; constr. of, 207; in appo- 
sition to a clause, 207, R. 22; 206, (3.); used 
when the reference is not to the subject, 
208, (6.); place of, 279, 7; ellipsis of de- 
monstratives before their relatives, 206, (3.), 
(a.); constr. of dem. adjs., 206, (16.); dem. 
ad vs. for dem. pronouns, 206, (20.); dem. 
pronouns is, etc., used for the oblique cases 
him, her, etc., 207, R. 20; redundant, 207. 
R. 21; dem. prons. and advs. announcing a 
proposition, 207, R. 22. 

Demoveo, w. abl., 251, n. 

Denarius, value of, 327, R. 3; divisions 
of. ib. 

Denique, its use, 277, I., R. 13. 

Denominatives, adjs., 128 ; — verbs, 1S7, I. 

Bens, gender of, 64, 1; compds. of, 64, 1. 

Bepello, w. abl., 251, N. 



Dependence, defined, 203, in., 8; of 
tenses, 258. 

Dependent or subordinate propositions, 
201,6. ' 

Deponent verbs, 142, r. 4; conjugated, 
161 ; participles of, 162, 17 ; lists of in 1st 
conj., 166; 2d conj., 170; 3d conj., 174; 
4th conj., 177; increment of, 289, 3. 

Beposco, 274, R. 7. 

Depriving, verbs of, w. abl., 251. 

Derivation of nouns, 100; — of adjs., 128; 
—of verbs, 187; — of advs., 192. 

Derivative words, quantity of, 284. 

Beses, gen. of, 112, 1; abl. of, 113, E. 2; 
defective, 115, 2 ; compared, 126, 4. 

Desiderative verbs, 187, n., 3; 176, N.; 
quantity of the u in, 284, e. 3. 

Designo, with two aocs., 230, N. 1. 

Bespero, constr., 224, R. 1. 

Desuper and insuper, 235, R. 8. 

Deterior, compared, 126, 1. 

Beterreo, quin, ne, or quominus, 262, 
R. 11; w. inf. ib. n. 

Beturbo, w. abl., 251, N. 

Bexter, how declined, 106; how com- 
pared, 125. 4. 

Beus, declined, 53; deum for deorum, 53. 

Bi or dii, 53 ; ellipsis of, 205, R. 7. 

-di or -dis. see -dis. 

Diaeresis, 306, 2 ; mark of, 5, 2. 

Dialysis, 306, r. 

Diana, pr. 282, I., e. 5. 

Diastole, 307, 2. 

Dico, w. two aces., 230, x. 1; ellipsis of, 
229, r. 3, 2; 209, r. 4; 270, R. 2, (b.); w.inf. 
and ace, 272, n. 1: w. ut, 273, 2, (c); 
dicunt, 'they say,' 209, r. 2, (2.); dicor, w. 
predicate nominative, 210. R. 3, (3.), (a.) 
and n. 1, cf. 271, R. 2; 272, r. 6; die, im- 
perative, 162, 4. 

Dicolon, 319, 2. 

Dicto audiens, w. dat., 222, r. 1; ditto, 
w. comparative, 256, R. 9. 

-dicus, words ending in, pr., 284, 2, e. 1. 

Bido, declined, 86; genitive of, 69, e. 3. 

Bies, declined, 90 ; its gender, 90, E. 1; 
compds. of with numerals, 121, 3; quantity 
of, 285, R. 4, e. 3, (6.) 

Difference, degree of, how expressed, 256, 
R. 10. 

Biffero, constr., 251, R. 3, N. ; 229, R. 4, 1. 
Differing, verbs of, 251, R. 3. 

Bifficile est, the indie, for the subj., 259, 
r. 4, (2.); with an inf. as subject, 269, r. 2; 
with supine in u, 276, in., R. 1; w. ad and 
a gerund, 276, ill.* R. 4. 

Bigne, w. abl., 244, R. 1. 

Dignor, w. abl., 244, r. 1; w. ace of the 
person, ib. ; w. inf., ib. ; w. two aces., ib. 

Dignus, w. abl. of the thing, 244; w. gen. 
244, r. 2, («•); w - acc> °f Deut - pron. or 
adj.', 244, r. 2, (a.); w. inf. or a subj. 
clause, 244, R. 2, (b.); with relative and 
subj., 264, 9; w. supine in u, 276, in., R. 1. 
Dimeter, 304, 2. 

Diminutive nouns. 100, 3;— adjs.. 104, 11; 
128,5;— verbs, 187, n., 4 ;— adverbs, 192, r. 
Diphthongs. 4; sounds of, 9; quantity 
of, 13, 4 ; 283, n. 
Diptotes, 94. 



INDEX. 



385 



Dir for dis, 196, (b.\ 2. 

Dis or di, inseparable prep., 196, (&.), 2; 
construction of some verbs compounded 
with, 251, R. 3, n. ; pr., 285, 2, r. 2. 

-dis, genitives in. 77, a. 1; dc's, adj., gen. 
plur. of, 114, E. 3. ' 

Discerno, 251. R. 3, N. ; in imperf. subj. 
for pluperf., 260, n., R. 2. 

Discolor, abl. of, 113, e. 2. 

Discordo and discrepo, 251, R. 3, and N. 

Disertus, pr., 284, E. 5, 2, N. 1. 

Disjunctive conjs., 198, 2. 

Dissideo. constr., 251, R. 3, and N. 

Dissi milts, 222, r. 1, and a. 2. 

Distich, 304. 

Distinguo and disto, 251, R. 3, and N. 

Distributive numbers, 119, 120 ; gen. plur. 
of, 105, R. 4 ; used for cardinal numbers, 
120. 4;— for multiplicatives, 120, 4, (b.) 

Distrophon, 319, 3. 

Diu, compared, 104. 6. 

Dives, gen. sing., 112, 1; gen. plur., 114, 
E. 2; 115, 1, (a.) 

Division of'words into syllables, 17 — 23. 

Do, 149, E. ; w. perf. participles, 274, 
r. 4; w. participles in dus, 274, R. 7; incle- 
ment of, 290, e. ; 284, e. 4. 

-do, nouns in, gender of, 59, 2 ; genitive 
of, 69, e. 1. 

Doceo, 231, r. 1 ; w. gen. of price, 214, N. 1. 

Doleo, w. quod, etc., 273, N. 7. 

Dominus. declined, 46. 

Domus, declined, 89; different use of 
domiis and domi, 89, (a.); constr. of gen., 
221. r. 3: of ace, 237, R. 4; of abl., 255, 
R. I - 254, r. 2. 

Donec^vr. subj., 263, 4; pr., 299, 4, E. 

Dono, w. abl., 249, i., R. 1; w. two da- 
tives. 227, R. 1. 

Dos. gen. of, 61, 3; doti dicare, 227, R. 2. 

Double consonants, 3, 1. 

Doubtful gender, 30. 

Dubito and non dubito, 262, N. 7 and 8; 
dubito an, 198, 11, (e.); dubito sit ne, etc., 
262, n. 8. 

Duco. constr., 214; 227, R. 1; 230, n. 1; 
in numero, or in loco, 230, N. 4; due, im- 
perat.. 162, 4. 

Dudum and jamdudnm, 191, R. 6. 

Duim. duis. etc., 162, 1. 

Diem, w. subj.. 263. 4; dum ne and dinn- 
modo ne, 263. 2. >".; d»m. ' until,' 263. 4, 
(1.):— ' while/ 263, 4, (2.)— compounded 
with a negative, 277, R. 16. 

Duntaxat, ,193, n., 3. 

Duo, declined, 118; duum for duorum, 
118, R. 1. 

•dus, participle in, how declined, 103, 
R. 2 ; of neuter deponent verbs, 161 ; with 
sum, 162, 15; neuter in -dura with est, 274, 
R. 11: w. dat. of person, 162, 15, R. 5; 225, 
in.: of dep. verbs. 162. 17, (b.); w. ace, 
234, R. 2; its signification, 274, 2, R. 7 and 
8; used for a gerund, 2c 5, u. 



E. 



E, sound of, 7 and 8 ; ? changed to u or 1, 
66, R. 4 and 5; nom. in S in 3d decl., 56, i, 
B. 1, 7; gender of nouns in e of 3d decl., 
33 



66; genitive of, 68 ; abl. of, 82; old dat. in, 
79; ace. plur. in, 54, 5; nom. plur. in, 83, 
i., 1; voc. in, 81, R. ; in gen. and dat. sing. 
5th decl., 90, e. 2; cf 40, 11; advs. in, 192, 
ir. ; syncope of in imperf. of 4th conj., 162, 
2; increment in e of 3d decl., 287, 3; plur., 
288 ; of verbs, 290 ; e ending the first part 
of a compound word, 285, R. 4; e final, 
quantity of, 295. — e or ex, prep., see ex. 

-ea, Greek ace. sing, ending in, 54, 5, and 
80. m. 

Eapse, etc., 135, R. 3. 

Ecce, compounded with demonstrative 
pronouns, 134, r. 2; w. nom., 209, r. 13; 
w. ace, 238, 2. 

Eccum, eccillum, eccistam, etc., 134, R. 2; 
238, 2. 

-ecis, gen. in, 78, (2.) 

Ecquis and ecqui, how declined, 137, 3, 
and R. 3; ecqum and ecqua, 137, 3, R. 4; 
ecquis est qui, 264, 7, N. 2; ecquid, interrog. 
particle, 198, 11, and r. a and b. 

Ecquisnam, 137, 4. 

Ectasis, 307, 2, (3.) 

Ecthlipsis, 305, 2. 

Edepol, 199, r. 3. 

Edico, 273, n. 4. 

Edim, edis, etc., 162, 1. 

-edis, gen. in, 73, e. 1 and 112, 1. 

Editus, w. abl., 246. 

Edo, 'to eat,' conjugated, 181; compds. 
of, 181, n. 

•edo, abstracts in, 101, 1. 

Edoceo, w. two aces., 231, r. 1. 

Efficio, 273, N. 2; — efficiens, w. gen., 213, 
R. 1, (2.); — efficitur, w. ut, or the ace with 
the inf., 262, r. 3, n. 1. 

Effugio, w. ace, 233, R. 1. 

Egeo and indigeo, 250, 2, R. 1; 220, 3. 

-egis, genitives in, 78, 2. 

Ego, declined, 133. 

Eheu, pr., 283, i., e. 5- 

Ei, how pronounced. 9, 1, and r. 1 ; gen- 
itive in, 73, r. ; pr., 283, 1., e. 6, (1.) 

-eia, verbals in, 102, 3. 

-eis, fern, patronymics in, 100, 1, (&.)~- 
ace plur. in. 85, E. 1, and 114, 2. 

-eius, pr., 283. r., e. 6, (3.) 

Ejus, use of, 208, (6.) 

Ejusmodi and ejusdemmodi, 139, 5, N. 2. 

-ela, verbals in, 102, 3. 

Elegiac verse, 311, R. 2. 

Ellipsis, 323: of pronoun in case of appo- 
sition, 204, R. 4; of the noun of an adj., 
205, R. 7; 252, a. 3; of the antecedent, 206, 
(3.) and (4.); of meus, etc., 207, r. 38; of 
nom., 209, r. 2 and 3; of verb, 209, r. 4; 
229, r. 3; of a noun limited by a genitive, 

211, r. 8; of gen., 211, r. 9; of a partitive, 

212, r. 1, n. 3; of subject ace, 239; 2G9, 
R. 1; of ace after transitive verb, 229, R. 4; 
of prep., 232, (2.); 235, R. 5; 241, r. 4; 248, 
R. 3 ; of voc, 240; of quam, 256; of partici- 
ple, in abl. absol., 257, R. 7; of ut w. subj., 
262, p.. 4; of ne after cave, 262, r. 6; of non 
after non modo, etc., 277, R. 6; of conjunc- 
tions, 278, r. 6; of j in composition, 307; 
of centena millia, 327, R. 6. 

-elluSy a, um, diminutives in, 100, 3, 
A. 3. 



386 



INDEX. 



-em and -en, aces, in, 45, 1 ; 80, IV. ; -em 
in ace. sing. 3ddecl., 79, 80. 

Emo, 252, r. 1. 

Emphatic word, its place in a sentence, 
279, 2 and 16. 

En, interrogative particle, 198, 11, and R. 
(a.); 137, R. 3; en, interjection, 199; w. 
nom., 209, r. 13; w. ace. 238, 2; -en, ace. 
in, 45, 1; 80, iv. 

Enallage, 323, 3. 

Enclitics, in accentuation, 15, 3; — con- 
junctions, 198, is. 1. 

EndeaToring, verbs of, 273, 1, (a.) 

-endus and -undus, 163, 20. 

English pronunciation of Latin, 6. 

Enim and nam, 198, 7, and r. ; 279, 3, 
(a.) and (c.) 

Enimvero, 198, 9, R. (a.) 

Ennehemimeris, 304, 5. 

Ens, participle, 154, r. 1. 

-ensis, adjs. in. 128, 6, (a.) 

-entissirnus, superlatives in, 126, 3 

-enus, adjs. in, 128, 1, (c.) 

Eo, conjugated, 182; compds. of, 182, 
R. 3; w. supine in urn, 276, n., R. 2; w. two 
datives, 227, R. 1. 

-eo, verbs in of 1st conj.^ 165, R. 3. 

Eo, pron. w. comparatives, 256, R. 16. 
As adverb of place, w. gen., 212, r. 4., N.2, 
(6.)— of degree, w. gen., 212, r. 4. n. 3- As 
an illative conj., 198, 6. 

Eodem, w. gen., 212, R. 4. N. 3. 

-eos, Greek gen. in, <6, E. 7 ; 54 5; pr., 
283, I., e. 6, (2.) 

Epanadiplosis, 324, 18. 

Epanados, 324, 19. 

Epanalepsis, 324, 16. 

Epanaphora, 324, 13. 

Epanastrophe, 324, 17. 

Epanorthosis, 324, 32. 

Epenthesis, 322, 3. 

Epicene nouns, 33. 

Epistrophe, 324, 14. 

Epizeuxis. 324, 20. 

Epu'or, with abl., 245, n., 4. 

Epulum, 92, 6. 

Equality, how denoted, 123, 3. 

Eques, gender of, 31, 2 ; used collectively, 
209. r. 11, (1.), (b.) 

Equidem. its composition and use, 191, 
R. 4. 

-er, nouns in, of 2d decl., 46 — syncopated, 
48, 1; of 3d decl., gender of, 58 and 60; 
genitive of, 70 and 71; syncopated, 71; — 
adjectives in, superlative of, 125; annexed 
to pres. infin. pass., 162, 6. 

Erga, how used, 195, R. 7. 

-ere, in 3d pers. plur. of perf. indie, ac- 
tive, 162, 8. 

-eris. genitives in, 76; 73, E. 2; 74, E. 1; 
and 112, 1 and 2. 

Ergo, w. gen., 147, R. 2, (a.) 

Erotesis, 324, 31. 

-errimus, superlatives in, 125, 1. 

-es, proper names in, 44, 1; -es and -e in 
Greek nouns changed to a, 45, 3; nouns in 
of 3d decl. increasing in genitive, gender of, 
58; 61; genitive of, 73; genitive of adjs. in, 
112 ; not increasing, gender of, 62 ; genitive 
of, 73; in nom., ace, and voc. plur. of 



masc. and fem. nouns of 3d decl., 83, i. ; 85 ; 
final, sound of, 8, E. 2; quantity of, 300. 

Escit, 154, r. 4. 

Esse and fuisse, ellipsis of, 270, R. 3. 

-esso, -isso or -so, intensives in, 187, n., 5. 

Est , w. dat. of a possessor, 226 ; est, qui, 
with subj., 264, 6; so est, unde, ubi, cur, or 
ut, 264, 6, R. 3. 

Et and que, 198, 1, R. (a.); et ipse, 207, 
R. 27, (&.); ellipsis of et, 298, R. 6, (b.); etis, 
et id, et is quidem, 207, R. 26, (c); et — et, 
et — que, et — neque or nee, 198, 1, R. (e.); 
et non, 198, 1, (c.) 

Etenim, 198, 7, R. (a.) 

Etiam, 198, 1, R. (d.); with comparatives, 
256, r. 9, (&.); 127, 3; etiamnum, etiam 
turn, 191, r. 7. 

-et is, genitive in, 73 ; 112, 1. 

Etsi and etiamsi, constr., 271, R. 2. 

-etum, derivative nouns in, 100, 7. 

Etymology, 24—199. 

Eu, the diphthong, 10, 3; when not a 
diphthong, 10, 3, R. 3; in voc. sing, of 
Greek nouns in ens, 81. 

Euphemism, 324, 11. 

Eus, nouns in of 2d decl., 54, 5; — adjs. 
in, 128, 1 and 2; Greek proper names in, 
283, n. 2; gen. of, 76, e. 7; ace. of, 180, m. 

-ev and -etu, in 2d and 3d roots of verbs, 
167. 

Evado, constr., 251, N. 

Evenit, conjugated, 184 ; evenit ut, 262, 
r. 3, 

Ex and c, prep., how used, 195, R. 2 and 
13; — used with partitives instead of the 
genitive, 212, n. 4; sometimes omitted, 251, 
and r. 1; ex quo, scil. tempore, 253, N. 4. 

-ex, gender of nouns in, 65, 2. 

Exadversus, w. ace, 195, R. 3. 

Excedo, w. ace, 233, (3.), n. 

Excello, constr., 256, R. 16, (3.) 

Excito, w. ut, 273, N. 4. 

Excludo, constr., 251, N. 

Exeo, constr., 251, N. 

Existimo, w. gen., 214; w. two aces., 
230, n. 1; existimor, constr., 271, R. 2. 

Exlex, 112, 2; 196. i., 6. 

Exos, genitive of, 112. 2. 

Exosus, 183, 1, N. 

Exsistunt qui, w. subj., 264, 6. 

Exter, 105, 3, and N. ; comparison of, 
125,4. 

Expedio, 251, N. ; expedit, w. dat., 223, 
r. 2, (b.) 

Experior si, 198, 11, (e.) 

Expers, w. gen., 213, R. 1, (3.), and 
R. 5, (2.) 

Extemplo, 193, II., 1. 

Extera, how compared, 125, 4; extremus, 
how used, 205, R. 17 ; extremum est, ut, 
262, r. 3. 

Exuo, constr., 225, R. 2; exuor, 234,1., 
r. 1. 



F. 



Fabida, ellipsis of, 29, 2. 

Fac. imperative, 162, 4; fac at orne, 267, 
R. 3 ; fac, ' suppose or granting,' w. ace and 
inf., 273, n. 3; pr., 299, e. 4. 



INDEX. 



387 



Farile, adv., 192, 4. (b.); w. superlatives, 
etc., 277. r. 7. 

F«ctK.«, constr., 276, m., r. 4; 222. r. l,(a.) 

Facio&nd campds., passive of. ISO and N. ; 
changes of in the compds., 189, K. 1; w. 
gen. of value, 214, r. 2: w. two aces., 230, 
N.l: w. abl., 250. R. 3; w. ut and subj., 
273,1, i». 2 and 3; w. participle, 273, 1; 
w. de, etc., 250, R. 3; facere non possum 
quin, 262, 2; facere quod, 273, n. 8; ellipsis 
of, 209, r. 4; facere certiorem, 230, N. 3. 

Faliscan verse, 312, xi. 

Fallit me, 229, r. 7. 

Familia with pater, etc., gen. of. 43, 2. 

Familiaris. w. dat., 222, k. 1, (a.); with 
gen.. 222, r. 1, (c.) 

Far, its root, 56, II., R. 6; gen. of, 71, 
K. 2: abl., 82. e. 1, (6.); 94 and 95. 

Fas. gender of, 62, e. 2; 94;. fas erat, 
the iudic. instead of the subj., 259, r. 3; 
fas est, w. supine in u, 276, m., r. 2. 

Faxo, faxim and faxem, 162, 9, and 183, 

R. 1. 

Faux, genitive of. 78, 2, (5.); but cf. 94, 
p. 50; gen. plur., 83, n., 3. 

Favetur, conjugated, 184, 2, (b.) constr., 
223. 

Fearing, verbs of, w. ut and ne. 262, r. 7. 

Febris, ellipsis of, 205, R. 7, (1.) 

Frcundus, w. gen. or abl., 213, R. 5, (3.) 

Feet, in poetry, 302; isochronous, 302, r. 

Fel, its root, 56, n., R. 6; its genitive, 
70, e. ; 94. 

Felix, declined, 111; 213, R. 4, (1.) 

Femina, added to epicene nouns, 133, N. 

Feminine nouns, of 1st decl., 41; of 2d 
decl., 49—51; of 3d decl., 62; exceptions in, 
62—65. 

Femur, genitive of, 71, 3. 

Fer, 162, 4; quantity of, 299, E. 4. 

Fero, conjugated, 179; its compds., 172. 
(p. 134); fertur, constr. of, 271, R. 2. 

-finis, comparison of adjs. in, 125, 3, (a.) 

Fido, how conjugated, 142, R. 2; w. abl., 
245. II.; w. dat., 245, n., r. 1; 223, R. 2. 

Futi, (from Jmdo), pr., 284, e. 1, (1.) 

Figures of prosody, 305 — 307; of orthog- 
raphv and etymology, 322; of syntax, 323; 
of rhetoric. 324. 

Filia, dat. and abl. plur., 43. 

Fi/ius, voc. sing., 52. 

Filling, verbs of, w. abl., 249, i. ; w. gen., 
220, 3. 

Final syllables, quantity of, 294— 301;— 
conjunctions, 198, 8. 

Finitimus. w. dat., 222, R. 1, (a.) 

Fio, conjugated, 180; w. gen. of value, 
214, R. 2; w. two datives, 227, R. 1; fit and 
fieri non potest ut, 262. r. 3 ; fit per me, 
262, r. 11; quantity of i in fio, 283, E. 1. 

Flagito, w. two aces., 231, E. 1: w. ut, 
273. n. 4. 

Flecto, used reftexively, 229, R. 4, 1. 

Flocci habere, etc.. 214. R. 1. 

Fluo and stnto, 2d and 3d roots of. 171, N. 

Follow, in what sense used, 203, 9. 

Fons, gender of, 64, 1. 

For as and for is, 237. R. 5, (e.) 

Forem,fore. etc., 154, R. 3; 162, 12, (1.); 
w. two datives, 227, R. 1. 



Fractional expressions, 121, 6. 

Freeing, verbs of, 251. 

Frenum, plur. freni and frena, 92, 5. 

Frequens, w. gen. or abl., 213, R. 3, (3.); 
cf. R. 4, (1.) 

Frequentative verbs, 187, II., 1; quantity 
of i in, 284, e. 4. 

Fretus, w. abl., 244; w. dat., 222, r. 6; 
w. inf., 244. R. 2, (b.) 

Fructus, declined, 87. 

Frugi, 115, 4; comparison of, 125, 5. 

Fruor, w. abl., 245, i. ; w. ace. 245. I., R. 

Frux, genitive of, 78, 2, (5.); 94. 

Fugio, constr., 225, iv.; 210, R. 3, (2.); 
fuge, poetically, w. inf., 271, n. 3 ; fugit me, 
229, r. 7. 

Fui, etc., in compound tenses, 162, 12, 
(1.); fuisse, w. perf. pass, participles, 268, 
R. 1,(6.) 

Fungor, w. abl., 245, I.; w. ace, 245, R.; 
275. ii., R. 1. 

Fuo, root of fui, 154, R. 2 and 3 ; futum, 
pr., 284, e. 1, (2.) 

Furo, 183, R. 2. 

Furor, w. dat. or abl., 224, R. 2. 

Future tense, 145, in.; how supplied in 
the subj., 260, R. 7; future perfect tense, 
145, vi.; old form in so, 162, 9 and 10; 
future indie, for imperative, 267, R. 2; 259, 
R. 1, (4.); fut. imperative, 267, (2.), (3.); 
future pass. part. w. ace, 234, I., R. 2; 
fut. perf. for fut., 259, r. 1, (5.) 

Futurum esse or fore, ut, w. subj., 268, 
R - 4, (b.); futurum fuisse, ut, 268, R. 5. 



G. 



G, sound of, 10; before s in roots of 
nouns, 56, R. 2 ; in roots of verbs, 171, 1, 
and e. 5. 

Galliambus, 314, x. 

Gaudeo, how conjugated, 142, R. 2; with 
abl., 247, 1, (2.); w. ace, 232, n. 1; with 
quod, etc., 273, n. 6. 

Gemo, w. ace, 232, n. 1. 

Gems, gender of names of, 29. 

-gena, compounds iu, 43, 2. 

Genrr, declined, 46. 

General relatives, 139, 5, R.; how used, 
207, R. 29. 

General indefinites, 139, 5, R. 

Gender, 26, 7 and 27; its divisions, 27; 
general rules of, 27 — 34; natural and gram- 
matical. 27; mase from signification, 28; 
fern, from do., 29; common and doubtful, 
30 ; epicene, 33 ; neuter appellatives of per- 
sons, 32, 2; of Greek nouns, 34, R. 1; neu- 
ter, 34; of 1st decl., 41; exes in 1st decl., 
42: of 2d decl.. 46; exes, in 2d decl., 49; 
of 3d decl., 58, 62, and 66; exes, in 3d decl., 
59—67; of 4th decl., 87; exes, in 4th decl., 
88; of 5th decl., 90; exes, in 5th decl., 90; 
gender of adjs., 205. 

Gene.ro. w. abl., 246, r. 1; generatus, w. 
abl., 246. 

Genitive, 37; sing.. 1st decl., exes. in. 43; 
of 3d decl., 68; of adjectives. 3d decl., 112; 
plur., 1st decl., contracted, 43; 2d decl., 
do., 53; 3d decl., 83; terminal letters in all 
the declensions, 40, 5; of adjectives, 3d 



388 



INDEX. 



decl., 112 and 114; after nouns, 211; its 
place, 279, R. ; what relations it denotes, 
211, R. 1 ; subjective and objective, 211, R. 2 ; 
of substantive pronouns objective, 211, r. 
3 ; possessive adjective used for, 211, R. 4 ; 
dative used for, 211, r. 5 ; of character or 
quality, 211, r. 6; of measure, 211, R. 6, 
and (3.) and (6.); noun limited by, omitted, 

211, R. 7; wanting, in the predicate after 
sum, 211, R. 8; in other cases, 211, R. 8,(4.); 
omitted, 211, R. 9 ; two genitives, 211, r. 10 ; 
gen. after opus and usus, 211, 11; how 
translated, 211, r. 12 ; after partitives, 212 ; 
after a neuter adjective or adj. pronoun, 

212, r. 3 ; its place, 279, 10 ; after adverbs, 
212, r. 4; after adjectives, 213; of cause or 
source, 213, r. 2; different constructions 
instead of, 213, r. 4; after dignus and in- 
dignus, 244, r. 2; after verbs, 214—220; 
after sum, and verbs of valuing, 214; of 
crime, 217 ; after verbs of admonishing, 218 ; 
after verbs denoting an affection of the 
mind, 220; instead of abl. after verbs of 
abounding, etc., 220, 3; instead of predicate 
ace, 230, n. 4; of place, 221 ; after parti- 
cles, 221, ii., in.; of gerunds, 275, in., r. 1; 
plur. depending on a gerund, 275, r. 1, 
(3.); place of, after neuter adjectives, 279, 
10. 

Genitives, two, limiting the same noun, 
211, r. 10. 

Genitus, w. abl., 246. 

Genius, voc. sing., 52. 

Gentium, 212, r. 4, n. 2. 

Genus, in ace. instead of the gen. or abl., 
as, id genus, omne genus, etc., 234, ii., r- 
2, fin.; 209, r. 7, (4.); 231, r. 6; used with 
the genit. instead of an apposition, 211, 

R. 2, N. 

Georgicon, 54, 4. 

Gero a,nd fero, compounds of, in nouns 
of 2d decl., 47 ; in adjs. of 1st and 2d decls., 
105, 3 ; not compared, 127, 7. 

Gerundives, defined, 275, r. 2 ; how used, 
275, u. 

Gerunds, 25, and 148, 2 ; by what cases 
followed, 274; and gerundives, genitive of, 
275, in., R. 1 ; nouns which they follow, ib. 
(1.); adjectives, ib. (2.); after sum denoting 
tendency, 275, (5.); instead of a noun in 
apposition, 211, r. 2, n. ; dat. of, 275, r. 2; 
ace. of, 275, R. 3; abl. of, 275, R. 4; infin. 
for, after adj., 270, r. 1. (a.) 

Gigno, pr., 284, r. 3. 

Gl, tl, and thl, in syllabication, 18, 3. 

Glorior, with abl., 247, 1,(2.); w. ace, 
232, n. 1, and (3.) 

Glyconic verse, 304, 2 ; 316, iv. 

Gn, initial, 12, r. 

Gnarus. w. gen., 213, R. 1; of; R. 4, (1.) 

-go, nouns in, gender of, 59,2; genitive 
of, 69, e. 1. 

Golden age, of Roman literature, 329, 2. 

Government defined, 203, 7. 

Grammatical subject, 202, 2; cases of, 
202, r. 4; predicate, 203, 2; figures, 322. 

Gratia, w. gen., 247, R. 2; its place, 279, 
r. ; gratias ago, constr., 273, n. 6. 

Gratum mihi est, quod, 273, n. 6. 

Gratulor, constr., 273, n. 7. 



Grave accent, 5, 2, and 14, 2 ; 15, R. 8. 

Gravidus and gravis, w. gen. or abl., 
213, r. 5, (3.) 

Greek nouns, gender of, 34, r. 1; termi- 
nations of in 1st decl., 44; in 2d decl., 54; 
terminations of in 3d decl., 55, R. ; ace. of 
in 3d decl., 80; declension of, in do., 86. 

Greek or limiting ace, 234, R. 2. 

Grex, gender of, 65, 2; genitive of. 78, 
2,(2.) 

Grus, gender of, 30; genitive of, 76, e. 3. 

Guilt and innocence, adjectives of, with 
gen., 217, R. 1. 



II. 



H, its nature, 2, 6 ; its place in syllabi- 
cation, 18, 1; before 5 in verbal roots, 171, 
1; in prosody, 283, i., (b.) 

Habeo, with two aces., 230, N. 1; habere 
in numero or in loco, 230, N. 4; w. gen. of 
value, 214, r. 2; w. abl. of price, 252. r. 1; 
w. two datives, 227, R. 1 ; w. participle perf. 
pass., 274, r. 4; w. participle in dus, 274, 
R. 7, («•); habeo, non habeo. or nihil habeo, 
quod, w. subj., 264, N. 3; haberi, w. predi- 
cate nom., 210, r. 3,(3.), (c); 271, N. 2, 
and r. 4. 

Habito, w. gen. of price, 214, s. 1; w. 
abl. of, price, 252, r. 1. 

Hac in answer to qua ? 191, R. 1, (c.) 

Hactenus, adv. of place and time, 191, 

R- 1, (§■•) 

Hadria, gender of, 42, 2. 

Hate, for hce, 134, R. 1. 

Haud, signification and use, 191, R. 3; 
haudmultum abest quin, 262, N. 7; haud 
scioan, 198, 11, R. (s.) 

Hebes, gen. of, 112, 1; abl. of, 113, E. 3; 
defective, 115, 2. 

Hti mihi, 228, 3. 

Hellenism, 323, r. (2.) 

Hem. w. dat., 228, 3; w. ace, 238, 2; w. 
voc, 240, r. 1. 

Hemistich, 304. 

Hemiolius, 304, 5. 

Hendiadys, 323, 2, (3.) 

Htpar, genit. of, 71 ; abl. of. 82, E. 1, (6.) 

Hephthemimeris, 304, 5. 

Heres, gender of. 31. 2; genitive, 73, E. 1. 

Heroic caesura, 310, 4 and 5. 

Heros, genitive, 75, 2; ace, 80, R.; dat. 
plur., 84; ace plur., 85, e. 2; declined, 86. 

Heteroclite nouns, 93. 

Heterogeneous nouns, 34, R. 2; 92. 

Heterosis, 323, 3, (2.) 

Hexameter verse, 310; Priapean, 310, n. 

Hiatus, 279, 18. 

Hibernus, pr., 284, E. 5, R. 2. 

Hie, pron., declined, 134; distinguished 
from Me, 207, R. 23; hie— hie. for hie— Me, 
207, R. 23, (b.)\ related in time like nunc 
and tunc. 

Hie, adv. of place, hie, hinc, hue, etc., 
referring to the place of the speaker, 191, 
r. 1, (e.); w. gen., 212, r. 4, n. 2, (6.); 
adv. of time, 191, r. 1, {g.) 

Him, her, etc., how expressed in Latin, 
207, R. 20. 



INDEX. 



389 



Hipponactic trimeter, 314, ir. ; tetrameter, 
814, iv. 

Historical present, 145, I., 3: perfect, 
145, iv., r.; for the pluperfect, 259, r. 1, 
(d.); infinitive, 209, r. 5; tenses, 258. 

Hoc, pleonastic, 207, R. 21 and 22; hoc 
w. partitive gen., 212, r. 3, N. 1; hoc with 
comparitives, 256, R. 16. 

Hodie, pr., 285, 2, k. 1. 

Homo, gender of, 31, 2 ; genitive, 69, e. 2 ; 
homo, homines, ellipsis of, 209, R. 2,(2.); 
205, R. 7,(1.); 229, r. 4. 

Homoeopropheron, 324, 26. 

Honor, (-os), declined, 57. 

Horace, key to the odes of, 321. 

Horatian metres, 320. 

Horreo, w. inf., 271, N. 1. 

Hortor, w. ad, 225, R. 1; w. ut, ne, etc., 
273.2; without ut, 2*52, r. 4. 

Hospes, gender of, 30; formation of nom. 
eing., 56. i., r. 3: genitive, 73, 2; abl.,113, 
K. 2; as an adj., 129, 8. 

Hostis, w. gen. or dat., 222, r. 2, (c.) 

' However ' w. a relative, how expressed 
in Latin, 280, in., (3.) 

Hue, w. genitive, 212, r. 4, N. 3, (&.); 
huccine rerum, 212, R. 4, N. 3. 

Humi, constr., 221, R. 3; humo, 254, R. 2; 
255, R.l! 

Huic, pronunciation of, 9, 5; pr., 306, 
R. 2. 

Hujus non facio, 214, R. 1. 

Hujusmodi, 134, R. 6; w. qui and the 
aubj., 264, 1, i*. 

Hypallage, 323. 4, (3.) 

Hvperbuton, 323, 4. 

Hyperbole, 324, 5. 

Hypercatalectic or hypermeter verse, 304, 
3, (4.) 

Hypothetical sentences, 259, R. 3, (c), 
(r/.), and r. 4; 260, n. ; in the inf., 268, r.4 
— R. 6. 

Hysteron proteron, 323, 4, (2.) 

I. 

I, its sound, 7 and 8 ; i and j but one 
character, 2, 3; t for ii in gen. of 2d decl., 
52; i changed to e in forming certain 
noms., 56, I., r. 3; nouns in i. gender of, 
66 ; genitive of, 68 ; genitive of Greek nouns 
in, 73, R.; dat. of 3d decl. in, 79; abl. sing, 
in, 82; 113; in gen. and dat. sing, of 5th 
decl., 90, E. 2; i ending the former part of 
a compound noun or adj., 103, R.l; 131, 
N. ; i in dat. sing, of nineadjs. in us and er, 
107; in 1st person sing, of the perf. act., 
147, 3; i. the characteristic vowel of the 
4th conj., 149, 2; cf. 150, 5; i or e for the 
Greek «. 283, e. 6, (1.); increment in, 3d 
decl., 287, 3; plur., 288; of verbs, 290; 
t final, quantity of, 285, R. 4. ; 296. 

-ia. abstracts in, 101, 3; in nom., ace. 
and voc. plur., 83: 85. 

-iacus. adjs. in, 128, 1, (d.) 

Iambic metre, 314; 303; tetrameter, 314, 
III.; trimeter, 314, i.; catalectic, 314, iv. ; 
dimeter, 314, vt.; hypermeter, 314, vn.; 
acephalous. 314. vin.; catalectic, 314, ix. ; 
iambico-dactylic metre, 318, n. 

83* 



-ianus, adjs. in, 128, 6, (/.) 

-ias, fem. patronymics in. 100. 1, (b.) 

Jbi, ellipsis of before ubi, 206,' (3.). {a.) 

-ids, genitives in, 78, 2, (2.) and (3.) 
74, e. 2. 

-icius, adjs. in, 128, 2; -icius or -itilts. 
verbal adjs. iu, 129, 5. 

Ictus, 308. 3. 

-iculus,a,um, diminutives in, 100, 3. R. 1. 

-icus, adjs. in, 128, 1, (d.), and 2,' (a.), 
and 6, It.) 

Id, before a relative pron., 206, (13.); 
w. gen., 212, R. 3; idtemporis, cr.tatis, id 
genus, etc., 234, II.. R."3; 253, R. 3; id ago, 
constr., 273, w. 1; 207, R. 22; id quod in- 
stead of quod, 206, (13.), (b.); as ace. of de- 
gree, etc., 232, (3.) 

Idem, declined, 134, R. 6; how used, 207, 
r. 27; w. gen., 212, r. 3; w. dat., 222, r. 7; 
207, R. 27, (</.); supplying the place of 
item, etiam, or tamen, 207, R. 27; idem 
qui, ac, atque, ut, cum, etc., 207, R. 27, (a.); 
222, r. 7 ; idem — idem, ' at once,' 207, R. 27, 
(c); a3 ace. of degree, 232, (3.) 

Ides, 326, 2. 

-ides, and -iades, patronymics in, 100, 1, 
(a.); pr., 291, 4. 

Idiotism, 325, 6. 

-idis, genitives in, 73, e. 1; 74, e. 2. 

Idoneus, qui, 264, 9; 270, R. 1. 

-idus, adjs. in, 129, 2. 

-iei, in 5th decl., quantity of the «, 283, 

I., E.2. 

-ies, advs. in, 192,, II., 3. 

Igitur, 198, 6; its place, 279, 3, (6.); 
equivalent to 'I say,' 278, R. 10. 

Ignarus, w. genitive, 213, R. 1; 275, in., 
R. 1, (2.) 

-ii in genitive contracted, 52; how ac- 
cented, 14, E. 

-He, derivative nouns in, 100, 9. 

-His, adjs. in, 129, 4; 128,4. 

Iliac, in answer to qua ? 191, r. 1, (d.) 

Illacrimo, w. dat., 224, n. 1, 4. 

Illative conjunctions, 198, 6. 

Hie, declined, 134; its uses, 207, R. 20— 
26; w. quidem, redundant, 207, R. 21; 
its relation to time, 207, R. 23, (c); as a 
pron. of the 3d pers., 207, R. 20; relation 
of hie and Me, 207, R. 23; Hie, qui, w.subj., 
264, 1, N. 

lllic, pron., how declined, 134, R. 3; 
illic, illuc, Mine, advs., their reference, 191, 
R. 1. (e.) 

-illimus, superlatives in, 125, 2. 

Illiusmodi, 134, 5. 

-Mo, verbs in, 187, II., 4. 

Illud, w. genitive, 212, r. 3, N. 1, (a.) ; 
pleonastic, 207, R. 22; as ace. of degree, 
232, (3.) 

Hludo, w. dat., 224, 4. 

-illus, a, um, diminutives in, 100, 3 ; A. 3. 

-im. in ace. sing. 3d decl., 79; 80; im for 
eum, 134, R. 1; -im, is, etc., in pres. subj., 
162, 1; adverbs in, 192, I. and II. 

ImbeciOus, pr., 284- 2, e. 2. 

Imbuo, constr., 231, R. 4. 

Imitative verbs, 187, 3. 

Immemor, gen. of, 112, 2; abl.,113, I. 3; 
gen. plur., 114, E. 2. 



390 



INDEX. 



Imtno, 191, r. 3. 

Immodicus, w. gen. or abl., 213, R. 5, (3.) 

Immunis, w. gen. or abl., 213, R. 5, (3.) 
cf. 251, n. 

-imonium, deriv. nouns in, 100, 6; — and 
-imonia, yerbals in, 102, 3. 

Impatiens, w. genit., 213, R. 1, (2.) 

Impavidus, w. genit., 213, R. 1, (3.) 

Impedio, w. quin, 262, N. 7; w. quomi- 
nus, 262, r. 11; w. inf., 262, r. 11, N. 

Impello, 273, N. 4. 

Imperative, 143, 3 ; its tenses, 145, R. 3 : 
how used, 267, (1.), (2.); irregular, 162, 4 
and 5; subj. for imperative 267, R. 2; sing. 
for plur., 209, n. 2; used as a noun, 205, 
R. 8. 

Imperfect tense, 145, n. ; w. oportet, etc., 
259, r. 3; the imperf. indie, for plup. subj., 
259, r. 4. 

lmperitus, w. genit., 213, R. 1, (3.); of 
gerund, 275, in., R. 1, (2.) 

Impero, constr., 273, n. 4; 262, R. 4; w. 
dat. and ace, 223, r. 2, (1.) 

Impersonal verbs, 184 ; subject of, 184, 2 
list of in 2d conj., 169; 184, R. 1; in 1st 
3d, and 4th conj., 184, r. 1 ; constr. w. gen. 
215, 1; 219; w. dat., 223, R. 2, n. (ft.); w 
ace, 229, r. 6 and 7. 

Impertio, 249, i., and R. 3; 225, R. 1, {b.) 

Bnpe.tr o, ut. 273, N. 2. 

Impleo, 249', r. 1; 220,3. 

Impono, 241, r. 5. 

Impos and impotens, w. genit., 213, R. 1, 
(3.) 

Imprimis, 193, n., 2. 

Imprudens, improvidus, w. genit., 213, 

R. 1. 

Bnpubes, genitive. 112, 1; abl., 113, e. 2; 
115,1, (a.) 

Impulsus, w. abl. of cause, 247, R. 2. (b.) 

-in, roots of nouns in, 56, n., R. 1 and 2; 
in ace. sing., 79. 

In, prep., constr., 235, (2.); signification 
and use, 195, R. 14; in composition, 196, 7; 
in with abl. instead of predicate ace, 230, 
N. 4; constr. of verbs compd. with, 224; 
w. abl. after verbs of placing, holding, re- 
garding, assembling, etc., 241, R- 5; ellipsis 
of with some ablatives of place, 254 and rs. ; 
with ablatives of time, 253, n. 1, and R. 5 ; 
with names of towns, 254, R. 2 and r. 3. 

Inanis, w. genit. or abl., 213, R. 5, (3.) 

Incassum, 193, n., 4. 

Incedo, 233, (3.), n.; 210, r. 3. (2.) 

Inceptive verbs, 187, n., 2; list of, 173. 

Incertus, w. genit., 213, R. 1; incertum 
est an, 198, 11, r. (e.); 265, R. 3. 

Inchoatives, see inceptive verbs. 

Incidit ut, 262, R. 3. 

Incito, constr., 225, R. 1 ; incitatus, w. abl. 
Of cause, 247, R. 2, (b.) 

Incipio, w. inf., 271, N. 1. 

Inclino, constr., 229, R. 4, 1; 225, IV. 

Incommodo, w. dat., 223, r. 2. n. {b.) 

Increment of nouns, 286; sing, num., 
287; plur. num., 288; ,of verbs, 289. 

Incrementum, 324, 22. 

Increpo and inerepito, w. gen., 217, R. 1. 

Incumbo, w. dat., 224, 4 ; w. ad, 224, R. 4. 

Incuso, w. genit., 217, r. 1. 



Inde, ellipsis of before unde, 206, (3.), (o.) ; 
inde loci, 212, r. 4, n. 4. 

Indeclinable nouns, 34: 94; — adjectives, 
115, 4. 

Indefinite adjectives, 104; 139, 5, R. ; — 
pronouns, 138; — adverbs, 191, r. 4. 

Indicative mood, 143, 1 ; its tenses, 145 ; 
how used, 259 ; tenses used one for another, 
259, r. 1—4; indie of the preterites with 
oportet, etc., 259, R. 3; in inserted clauses, 
266, 2, r. 3 and 5; 266, 1, R. 1. 

Indico, w. ace and inf., 272, n. 1. 

Indigeo, w. abl., 250, 2, (2.); w. genit., 
220, 3. 

Indignor, constr., 273, 5, N. 6. 

Indignus, w. abl., 244; w. genit., 244, 
R. 2; indignus qui, w. subj., 264, 9; w. su- 
pine in u, 276, in., R. 1. 

Indigus, w. genit. or abl., 213, R. 5, (2.) 

Indirect questions, subj. in, 265: — indi- 
rect reference, 266, 3 :— indirect discourse, 
266, 1, n. and 2. 

Induco, id animum inducere, 233, (1.); 
pass. w. ace, 234, R. 1; inductus, w. abl. 
of cause, 247, R. 2, (6.) 

Indulgeo, constr., 223, (1.), (a.) 

Induo, w. dat. and ace, 224, 4; w. abl. 

and ace, 249, i., r. 1 ; cf. 224, r. 1, {b.); 

induo and exuo, constr. in pass., 234, r. 1. 

-ine or -rone, fern, patronymics in, 100, 1.(6.) 

Ineo, 183, r. 3; inire consilia, w. inf., 
270, r. 1, («.)• 134, in. 

Iners, abl. of, 113, E. 3, and R. 1. 

Biexpertus, w. genit., 213, R. 1. 

Infamo, w. genit. of crime, 217, R. 1. 

Infero, 224, 4, and R. 4. 

Inferus, comparison of, 125, 4; — inferior, 
w. dat., abl., or qvam, 256, R. 10; infimus 
and imus, 205, R. 17. 

Infinitive, 143. 4: as a noun, 26, R. ; 269; 
its gender, 34, 4; 205, R. 8; its cases, 269, 
(b.); as an ace, 229, r. 5; 270; as a verb, 
269, (a.); its tenses, 145, R. 4; old inf. pres. 
pass, in -er, 162, 6; — inf. as logical subj., 
202, r. 2; 269; how modified, 203, n.. 5; 
with subject nom., 209, R. 5; for the geni- 
tive, 213, r. 4; its subject, 239; w. dat. in- 
stead of ace, 227, n.; construction and 
meaning of its tenses, 268 , inf. as subject 
of inf., 269, r. 3; as predicate nom., 269, 
R. 4; esse, etc., with licet and a predicate 
noun or adj., case of such predicate, 269, 
r. 5; poetically after what verbs, 271, R. 3; 
depending on a verb, 270 : 229, r. 5; on an 
adj. or noun, 270, R. 1; 275, n., R. 1, n. 1; 
absolute, 270. R. 2; ellipsis of, 270, r. 3; 
inf. without a subject after what verbs 
used, 271; with a subject, after what verbs, 
272; 273; how translated, 272, r. 3; used 
like a noun, 273. n. 9; its place, 279, 11; 
inf. pres. for inf. perfect, 268, r. 1; inf. 
perf. for present, 268, r.2; pres. for future, 
268, r. 3 ; poet, to denote a purpose, 274, 
r. 7, (b.) 

Infinitum est, the indie for the subj., 
259, n. 4, (2.) 

Infirmus, w. genit. or abl., 213, r. 5, (3.) 

Infit, 183, 14; 180. n. 

Inflection, 25; parts of speech inflected, 
24,4. 



INDEX. 



391 



Ingens, abl. of, 113, E. 3. 

Liimicus, w. dat., 222, r. 1; w. genit., 
222, r. 2, (c.) 

-mis, genitives in, 69, E. 1 and 2. 

Initio, '• at first," 253. x. 

Innitor, 224, R. 4. See also nitor. 

Innocens and innoxius, w. genit., 213, 
R. 1. 

Insatiabilis. w. genit., 213. R. 5, (1.) 

Inscius, w. genit., 213, r. 1, (3.) 

Inscribo, insculpo, and instro, constr., 
241. r. 5- 

In si mul o, w. genit., 217, R. 1. 

Insolens and insolitus. w. genit.. 213, r. 1. 

7/io^5. abl. of. 113, E. 3: 115. 1, (a.); w. 
genit., 213, r. 1; cf. r. 4. (1.); w. abl., 250, 
2.(1.) 

Inquam. 183. 5: ellipsis of, 209, r. 4; its 
position. 279. 6. 

Iuserted clauses, 266. 

Insinuo,, constr., 229, R. 4. 1. 

Insons. genit. plur. of, 114, E. 3; 115, 1. 
(a.); w. geuit.,213, r.1. 

Inspergo, 249. i., r. 1 and R. 3. 

Instar, a diptote, 94. 

Inst it no. 273. x. 4; 230, n. 1; 231, R. 4; 
w. inf.. 271. x. 1. 

Instrument, abl. of, 247, and R. 5; w. 
verbs of teaching. 231, R. 3. (c.) 

In struo, 231. R. 4. 

Insiuiure tempus. 275, R. 2. 

Insuesco, w. dat. or abl. of the thing, 
245. a., 3; w. inf.. 271. x. 1. 

Insuttus. 213, r. 1. (3.); 222, R. 2, (a.); 
275. in., (2.): 270. r. 1: 275, in., r. 1, (2.) 

Insuper. w. ace. or abl., 235. R. 8. 

Integer, w. genit., 213; integrum est ut, 
262. r. 3. x. 3. 

InteUigo. w. two aces., 230, x. 1; w. ace. 
and inf.. 272. x.l; intelligitur, w. inf. as 
subject. 269, K. 2. 

Intention denoted by participle in rus 
with sum, 162. 14: 274. r. 6. 

Intentus, w. ace. m'Vk7, 232, (3.); intentum 
esse, w. dat. of gerund, 275, in., r. 2. (1.) 

7/i£er. use of. "235. 1. R. 2: in composition, 
-:— w. se or ?>.sp, 208.(5.); w. ge- 
runds. 275. in.. R. 3; instead of partitive 
gen.. 212. r. 3, x. 4: construction of its 
compds.. 224; repeated by Cicero after in- 
teresse, 277, II., 4. 

Intercedo, w. quin, ne, or quominus, 262, 

R. 11. 

Interclwio and interdico, 251, N. and r. 2. 

Interdico. w. abl.. 251, x. 

Inttrdiu or die. 253. x. 1. 

Interea loci, 212, r. 4, x. 4. 

Interest. Roman computation of. 327. 

Interest^ w. genit.. 219; w. ?M#=a. etc., 219, 
R. 1; subject of. 219, r. 4; degree of interest 
how expressed, 219. r. 5. 

In '.trior, comparison of, 126, 1; intimus, 
205. R. 17. 

Interjections. 199; w. rom.. 209. r. 13; 
w. dat.. 223. (3.): w. ace., 288,2; w. voc, 
240: O. keu, etc.. not elided. 305. 

Intermitto. w. inf.. 271. H. 1. 

Interpres. gender of, 30; 61, 2; genit. of. 
73.3. 

Interritus, w. genit., 213, B. 1 and 2. 



Interrogative particles, 198, 11; — adjs., 
104, 14; 121, 5; 139, 5, 3;— pronouns, 137; 
in indirect questions, 137, N. ; 265, N. 2 ; — 
sentences, 200, 3. 

Interrogo, w. two aces., 231, R. 1; constr. 
in pass., 234, i.j w. genit. of the ciime, 
217, r. 1. 

Intersum, w. dat., 224. 5. 

Intus, w. ace, 338. 1, (b.) 

Intra, how used, 195, R. 8; 253, R. 4, (b.) 

Intransitive verb, 141, n.; used imper- 
sonally in pass. w. dat., 223, n. 1, (c.) 

•inus, adjs. in, 128, 1, 2, and 6. 

Invado, 233, (3.), N. ' 

Invariable adjs., 122; specified, 127, 7. 

Invenio, w. two aces., 230, N. 1; inveni- 
untur. qui, w. subj.. 264, 6. 

Livid to, constr., 223, (1.), (c); 220, 1; 
invidetur mihi, 223, R. 2, x. (c.) 

Invitus, w. dat. of the person, 226, R. 3; 
invito. Minerva. 257, R. 7. 

Involuntary agent of pass, verb, 248, II., 
and x. 

-io, nouns in, gender of, 59, 1; personal 
appellatives in, 100, 4, (b.); verbals in, 102, 
7; verbs in of 3d conj., 159. 

Ionic metre. 317 ; 303 ; — a majore, 317, 1. ; 
— a minore, 317, II. 

-ior, -ius, in terminational comparatives, 
124.1. 

Ipse, declined, 135; how used, 135, R. 1; 
207. r. 28; used reflexively, 208. (4.); 207, 
R. 28, (c); w. inter. 208,(5-); et ipse, 207, 
R. 27,(6.); ipse, with the inf.. 273, x.9,(a.); 
nunc ipsmn and turn ipsum, 191, r. 7. 

Ipsus and ipsissimus, 135, R. 2. 

Irascor, w. dat., 223, R. 2, n., (b.) 

Iri, w. supine in um. 276, It., R. 3. 

Iron age of Roman literature. 329, 4. 

Irony, 324, 4. 

Irregular nouns, 92; — adjs., 115; — verbs, 
178—182. 

-('.<:. nouns in, gender of, 62 ; 63 ; genitive 
of. 74 : -is or -eis instead of -e* in ace. plur. 
of 3d decl.. 85. e. 1; abl. of adjs. in is used 
as nouns, 82, e. 4; — used as proper names, 
82, e. 4, (b.); -is for -us in genitive of 4th 
decl., 89, 2; fern, patronymics in, 100, 1, 
(b.); ellipsis of in 2d root of verbs, 162, 7, (c ) 

Is, pron.. declined, 134; how used, 207, 
R. 26; referring to a clause, 206,(13.); is 
and Me with quidem used pleonasticallv, 
207, R. 21; is for talis, 207, R. 26, (b.) ; 264, 
1, n.; et is, atque is. isque, et is quidem, 
207, R. 26, [<?.); ellipsis of is, 207, R. 26, (d.); 
is-qui, 264, 1, x. 

Islands, gender of, 29; constr. of names 
of, 237, R. 5, (b.) 

-issimus. a, um, the terminational super- 
lative, 1241 2. 

-isso, verbs in, 187, n., 5. 

Iste, how declined, 134; how used, 207, 
R. 23, 25: iste qui, w. subj., 264, 1, n. 

Istic. pron., declined, 134. R. 3. 

Is tic, adv.. istinc, istuc, their reference, 
191, R. 1, (e.) 

Istiusmodi, 134, R. 5. 

■it, roots of nouns in, 56, it., R- 5; in 3d 
root of 4th conj., 175; of certain verbs of 
3d conj., 171, E. 7. 



392 



INDEX. 



Ita, 191, H. 5; 277, e. 12, (a.); ita non, 
277, R. 14. 

Itaque, its meaning, 198, 6, R. ; its place, 
279, 3, (b.) 

Iter, declined. 57 ; 71, 2 ; -with sum and 
ace. of place, 237, R. 1; increments of, 
236,2. 

-iter and -ter, adys. in, 192, n. and iv. 

-itas, -ia, -itia, -ities, -itudo, and -itus, 
abstracts in, 101, 1. 

-4tis, genitive in, 73; 78, 1; 112, 1. 

-ito, frequentatives in, 187, n., 1. 

-itius or -icius, adjs. in, 129, 5. 

Itum, sup., in prosody, 284, e. 1, (2.) 

-itus, advs. in, 192, i. and to. ; adjs. in, 
128, 7. 

-ium, verbals in, 102, 2; -ium or -itium, 
nouns in, 100, 5. 

-ius, genitives in, place of English accent, 
15; in what adjs., 107; quantity of the i, 
283, i., e. 4:— adjs. in. 128, 1, 2, and 5; 
voc. sing, of patrials and possessives in, 52. 

-iv, in 2d roots of verbs, 175; 171, E. 3. 

•dvus, adjs. in, 129, 7. 



J. 



J, vowel before, in prosody, 283, iv., w. 1. 

Jaceo, 210, R. 3, (2.) ; 233, (3.), n. 

Jam, with a negative, 191, r. 6 ; jamdu- 
dum, ib; 

Jecur, genitive of, 71, 3; increments of, 
286, 2. 

Jejunus, w. gen. or abl., 213, r. 5, (3.) 

Jesus, decl. of, 53. 

Jocus, plur. joci and joca, 92, 2. 

Jubar, abl. of, 82, e. 1, (b.) 

Jubeo, constr., 223, (2.); 273, 2, (d.); 272, 
R. 6 ; 262, r. 4 ; ellipsis of jubeo valere, 238, 
R. 2; jubeor, w. inf., 271, N. 1. 

Jucundus, constr., 276, in., r. 1 and 4; 
jucundum est, w. quod, 273, 5, N. 6. 

Judico, w. two aces., 230, N. 1; w. ace. 
and inf., 272, n. 1; in pass., 210, r. 3, (3.), 
(c); judicari w. predicate nominative, 271, 
N. 2. 

Jugenim, 93, 1 ; 94. 

Jugum, quantity of its compds., 283, iv., 
i. 1. 

Jungo. constr., 229, e. 4, 1. 

Junctus and conjunctus, constr., 222, 
R. 6, (c.) 

Jupiter, genitive of, 71 ; declined, 85. 

Jure ali quid facer e, without cum, 247, 2. 

Juro, its compds., 189, n. 3: — juratus, 
with active meaning, 163, 16:— juro, poet. 
w. inf., 271, n. 3. 

Jusjurandum, declined, 91. 

Justum erat, indie, for subj., 259, R. 3; 
justum est with inf. as subject, 269, r. 2; 
justo after comparatives, 256, R. 9; its 
place, 279, n. 1. 

Jurat, w. ace, 229, r. 7. 

Juvenalis, abl. of, 82, e. 4, (b.) 

Juvenis, abl. of, 82, e. 4, (&.); 113, E. 2; 
comparison of, 126, 4; 115, 1, (a.); for in 
juventute, 253, R- 6. 

Juxta as an ad?,, 195, r. 4; juzta ac or 
atque, 198, 8, R. 



K, its use, 2, 4. 

Key to the Odes of Horace, 321. 

Knowing, verbs of, their construction, 272. 



L, roots of nouns in, 56, n. ; gender of 
nouns in, 66 ; genitive of, 70 ; — final, quan- 
tity of, 299, 2. 

Laboro, constr., 273, N. 1; poet. w. inf., 
271, n. 3. 

Labials, 3, 1. 

Lac, gender of, 66, B.; genitive of, 70. 

Lacesso, constr., 225, R. 1. 

Lmtor, w. abl., 247, 1, (2.); ace, 232, (3.) 

Lcetus, w. abl. or gen., 213, R. 6, (4.); 
cf. r. 4, (1.) 

Lampas, declined, 86. 

Lapis, declined, 57. 

Lar, pr., 284, N. 1. 

Largus,vr. gen. or abl., 213, r. 5,(3.); 
cf. r. 4, (1.) 

Lars, genitive of, 71. 

Lassus, w. genit., 213, R. 2. 

Lateo, w. dat. or ace, 223, R. 2, N., (&.), 
and (1.), (a.) 

Latin grammar, its divisions, 1. 

Latinis, for ludis Latinis, 253. n. 1. 

Latus, altus, and longus, w. ace of space, 
236. 

Lavo and laxo, scil. se, 229, R. 4, 1 ; lavo, 
w. abl. of price, 252, R. 1. 

Laxo, w. abl., 251, N. 

Leading clause, subject, and verb, 201.13. 

Lego (ere), its form in the compds., 189, 
N. 2; constr., 230, n. 1. 

Lenio, constr., 229, r. 4, 1. 

-lentus, adjs. in, 128, 4. 

Letters, 2; division of, 3; sounds of, 7; 
numeral, 118, 7; capital, 2, 2; silent, 12, r. ; 
terminal in 3d decl., 55. 

Levo, w. abl., 251, n. ; w. gen. poet., 
220,2. 

Lex, gender, 65. 2; genitive, 78, 2, (2.); — 
legem dare, constr., 273, 2, n. 4; — lege, abl. 
of manner, 247, 2. 

Liber, w. abl. or gen., 213. r. 5, (4.); cf. 
220, 2 ; and 251, n. ; w. genit., 213, r. 5, t4.) ; 
cf. r. 4, (1.) 

Libero, w. abl., 251, n.; poetically, w. 
genit., 220, 2. 

Liberalis, w. genit., 213, R. 5, (1.) 

Libram and libras, 236, R. 7. 

Libro, abl. w. adj. without prep., 254, 
r. 2. 

Licentia, w. genit. of gerund, 275, in., 

B.l,(l.) 

Liceo, w. genit. of price, 214, r. 3; w. 
abl., 252, R. 1. 

Licet, w. dat., 223, R. 2; w. subj., the ace 
with the inf., or the inf. alone. 273, 4; 262, 
r. 4 ; w. inf. as subject, 269, r. 2 : case of 
the predicate after licet esse, etc., 269. r. 5; 
w. indicative instead of subj., 259, R. 3, (a.) 
— licet, conj. w. subj., 263, 2. 

Limiting ace, 234, ii. ;— abl., 250 and r. 

-limits, superlatives in, 125, 2. 

Linguals and liquids, 3, 1. 



INDEX. 



393 



Liquidus, pr., 284. e. 5., r. 3. 

-lis, adjs. in, comparison. 125, 2. 

Literas dare, scribere or mittere, 225, HI., 
r. 4; ellipsis of. 229. p. 4. 2: literas or Ute- 
ris, after verbs of teaching. 231, r. 3, (c.) 

Litotes. 324. 9. 

Latum, pr.. 284, e. 1. (2.) 

Loading, verbs of. w. abl.. 249, I. 

Locuphs. genitive of, 112. 1: abl., 113, 
e. 2: gen. plur., 114, e. 3; 115, 1, (a.); w. 
abl. or gen.. 213. r. 5. (4.) 

Locus, plur. loci and loca. 92, I., 2; loco 
and teas, abl. of place without a preposi- 
tion, 254. r. 2: loco, w. gen. for predicate 
nom., 210. n. 3: for predicate ace. 230. x. 
4; loci and locorum. 212, r. 4, n. 2 and n. 
4: locus in apposition to names of towns, 
237. r. 2; loco, w. gen. of price, 241, r. 5; 
w. abl. of price, 252, r. 1; w. participles in 
dus. 274. r. 7; w. genitive of gerunds, 275, 

III.. R. 1, (1.) 

Logical subject. 202. 3 ;— predicate, 203, 3. 

Long syllable, 282. 2. 

Longe, w. comparatives and superlatives, 
127. 3: 253, >-.; w. ace. of space, 236, n. 1; 
kmge gentium, 212, r. 4, n. 2, (6.); longius 
without quam, 256, r. 6. 

Longitudine, w. genit. of measure, 211, 
r. 6, (6.) 

Longus, w. ace. of space, 236; longum 
est. the indicative instead of the subjunc- 
tive, 259, r. 4, (2.) 

-Is, genitive of nouns in, 77, 2, (2.) 

Ludis, for in tempore ludorum, 253, N. 1; 
257. r. 9, (2.) 

Luo, w. abl., 252. r. 1. 

M. 

M. roots of nouns ending in, 56, I. : be- 
fore d changed to n, 134, .\. 1; dropped in 
the 3d root of certain verbs. 171, e. 6; final, 
quantity of. 299, 3; elided, 305, 2. 

-ma. Greek nouns in, genitive plur. of, 

Mactus. 115. 5: made, w. abl., 247, 1, 
H.2; w. genit.. 213, r. 5. (4.) 

Magis and ?naxime. use of in forming 
comparatives and superlatives. 127, 1; ple- 
onastic with matte, etc.. 256. R. 13. 

Magnus, compared, 125. 5: w. supine in 
t/ r "276. in., r. 1: magnam partem, 234. a., 
r. 3: ??iagni. parvi, etc., w. verbs of valu- 
ing. 214. k. 1 : magna, parvo, etc., w. verbs 
of buying, etc., 252, r. 3. 

Ma -. constr. of its compounds malefacio, 
maledico, etc. ,225, I.; male, instead of abl. 
of price. 252. r. 3: male, bene, or prudenter 
facio ; male or bene Jit. w. quod. 273, 5, (1.) 

Malo, conjugated. 178.3; constr., 273, 4; 
262. r. 4: maUem. meaning of, 260, II. r.2; 
constr. w. abl. like a comparative, 256. r. 
16.(3.) 

Malus, compared. 125, 5. 

Mando, constr.. 223, r. 2. and (1.), (&.); 
273. n. 4: 274 r. 7. (a.); 262, r. 4. 

Mane, 94: 192. 3. 

Maneo. 210, r. 3.(2.); compds. of, 233. 
(3. , n. 

Manifestos, w. genit., 213, R. 1. 



Manner, advs. of, 191, in., abl. of. 247; 
with cum, 247. 2 ; -w.de or ex, 247. R. 3. 

Manus, gender of. 88 ; ellipsis of, 205, r. 
7; manum injicere. 233, (1.) 

Mire. abl. of, 82, b. 1, (&.); ellipsis of, 
205, r. 7. 

Mas, gender of, 62. e. 1: genitive. 72, 
e. 1: genit. plur., 83, n.. 3. e. ; used to 
distinguish the sex of epicenes, 33, n. 

Masculine nouns of 3d decl., 58; excep- 
tions in, 59 — 61; — masculine cassura, 310, 

N. 1. 

Materfamilias, declined, 91. 

Materia, w. genit. of gerunds, 275, III., 
R.l..(l.) 

Material nouns. 26, 6;— adjs., 104, 8. 

Maturo, scil. se, 229, r. 4, 1; w. inf., 271, 
N. 1. 

Me and mi for mihi, 133, R. 1. 

Mea, tua, etc., w. refert and interest, 219, 
R. 1 and 2. 

Means, abl. of, 247; when a person, 247, 
R. 4; w. passive verbs. 248. 

Measure or metre, 303; Roman measures 
of length, etc., 327. 

Medeor, w. dat., 223, N. (b.); its gerun- 
dive, 275, n., R. 1. 

Medicor, constr., 223. (1.). (a.) 

Meditor', constr., 273, N. 1. 

Medius. how translated, 205, r. 17; w. 
genit., 213; w. inter, 212, r.4,(2.); w. abl., 
213, r. 4, (5.); its place, 279, 7, (b.) 

Mel, genitive of, 70, E. ; 56, n., r. 6; abl., 
82, e. 5. (b.): 94. 

Melas, genitive of, 72, E. 2. 

Melius fuit and erat instead of subj.. 259, 
r. 3; melius est, w. dat., 228, 1; melius 
erit. w. perf. inf.. 268, R. 2. 

Melos, nom. plur. of, 83, 1 ; 94. 

Meme and mepte, intensive. 133, R. 2. 

Memini, 183. 3; constr., 216; w. present 
inf., 268, R. 1; w. ace. and inf.. 272. is. 1; 
memento, poet. w. inf.. 271. x. 3. 

Me?nor. w. genit., 213, R. 1, (3.) ; w. subj., 
213, r. 4. 

Memoro, constr.. 272. r. 6. 

-men, nouns in, gender of, 61. 4. and 66; 
genitive. 71, 1; -men or -mentum, verbals 
in. 102, 4. 

Mens; in mentem venit, constr., 216, 
r. 3. 

Mercor. w. abl. of price, 252, R. 

-met. enclitic. 133. r.2; 139, R. 1. 

Metalepsis. 324, 6. 

Metaphor, 324. 1. 

Metaplasm. 322, 1. 

Metathesis, 322, 9. 

Meto, 171, E. 2. 

Metonvmv. 324. 2. 

Metre. 303 ; how divided, 303, 3 ; different 
kinds. 310—317. 

Metres, compound. 318: Horatian, 320. 

-metros. Greek nouns in. 49, 2. 

Metuo, w. ut or ne, 262, r. 7 ; w. inf., 271, 

N. 1. 

Meus. voc. sing, masc, 105. R. 3: 139, 1; 
used reflexively, 139, r. 2; how declined, 
139: meum est. 211, r. 8, (3.). (a.) 

Mi. for mihi, 133, R. 1. 

Middle voice in Greek, 248, H. 1, (2.) 



394 



INDEX. 



Mile, Roman, 327. 

Miles, declined, 57; gender, 30; 61, 2; 
genitive, 73, 2 ; used collectively, 209, r. 11, 
(1.), (&.); ellipsis of, 205, b. 7. 

Military expressions without cum, 249, 

III., R. 

Militia, construed like names of towns, 
221, r. 3. 

Mille, how used, 118, 6; ellipsis of, 327, 
r. 5. 

Million, how expressed, 118, 5, (a.); a 
million sesterces, 327, R. 6. 

Mini f or m ihine, 133, R. 1. 

-mino, in old imperatives, 1G2, 5. 

Minor and conrpds, w. ace. and dat., 223, 
(1.), (b.) 

Ministro, w. dat., 223, R. 2; and (1.), (b.) 

Minus and minimum, w. genit., 212, R. 3, 
n. 1; minus, for non, 277, I., r. 14; minus 
without quam, 256, r. 6. 

Miror, conjugated, 161 ; w. genit. poet., 
220, 1; constr., 273, n. 6. 

Mirum est ut, 262, r. 3, N. 3; minim 
quam, quantum, etc., 264, R. 4. 

Misceo, how construed, 245, ii., 2, andR. 
1; 224, r. 3. 

Misereor, miseresco, miseret, miseritum 
est, and miser escit, w.gen. of the thing, 215; 
miseret, etc., w. ace. of the person, 215, N. 
3; 229, r. 6; and w. ace. of the thing, 215, 
N. 2; w. ace. of degree, 215, N. 3. 

Mitis, declined, 109. 

Mitto, w. ad or in, 225 ; w. two dats., 227; 
273, 2, (c); w. participle in dus, 274, r. 7; 
w. inf., 271, n. 3; w. quod, 273; missum 
facio, 274, r. 4. 

Mn, initial, 12. 2, r. 

Mobilis, pr., 284, e. 5, R. 1. 

Moderor, constr., 223, (1.), (a.) 

Modi annexed to pronouns, 134, R. 5; 
its use, 211, r. 6, (5.) 

Modicus, w. genit., 213, R. 5, (1.) - 

Modified subject, 202, 6 ; itself modified, 
202, in., r. 1 ;— predicate. 203, 5. 

Modify or limit, in what sense used, 202, 
4, R. 

Modo as abl. of manner, 247, 2. 

Modo, conditional conj., 198, 5; w. subj., 
263,2; modo, adv., 193, ir., 3; modo ne, 
263, 2, N. 1; modo-^modo, 277, R. 8. 

Modus, w. genit. of gerunds, 275, in., 
B. 1,(10 

Mollio, 229, r. 4, 1. 

Moleste, cegre or graviter fero, w. quod, 
273, n. 6. 

Moneo, conjugated, 157; constr., 218, 
andR.l, 2; 273, n.4; without?^, 262, r.4; 
w. ace. and inf., 273, n. 4, (e.); in pass., 
234.1. 

Money, Roman, 327, pp. 370—372. 

Monocolon, 319, 2. 

Monometer, 304, 2 ; 313, I. 

Monoptotes, 94. 

Monosyllables, quantity of, 294, (a.) ; 
299, 1; their place, 279, 8. 

Mons, gender of, 64, 1. 

Months, Roman, 326, 2; names of, 326; 
division of, 326,1; gender of names of, 28; 
115, 3; abl. of names in er and is, 82, k. 2, 
(a.) 



Moods, 143. 

Mora, in prosody, 282, 2. 

Mos or moris est, constr., 262, N. 2; w. 
genit. of gerunds, 275, nr., r. 1, (1.); more 
as abl. of manner without cum, 247, 2. 

Motion or tendency, verbs of, constr., 
225, iv.; 237, r. 3. 

Motum, pr., 284, e. 5, r. 1. 

Mountains, gender of names of, 28. 3. 

Moveo, constr., 229, r. 4, 1; 251, N.; 
motus, w. abl. of cause, 247, R. 2, (b.) 

-mis, nouns in, genitive of, 77, 2, (1.) 

Multiplicatives, 121, 1. 

Multo, {are), constr., 217, R. 5. 

Multus, compared, 125, 5; multi et. how 
used, 278, r. 5 ; multo, w. comparatives, 
etc., 127, 3; 256, R. 16; so multum, ib., >\ ; 
multum, w. genitive, 212, r. 3, N. 1; as 
ace. of degree, 212, (2.); multus instead of an 
adverb, 205, R. 15. 

Mus, gender of, 30; 67, 4; genitive, 76, 
B. 3; genit. plur., 83, n., 3. 

Munificus, w. genit., 213, r. 5, (1.) 

Mutes, division of, 3, 1; a mute and 
a liquid in prosody, 283, iv., e. 2. 

Mutilus, w. abl., 213, r. 5, (5.) 

Muto, constr., 252, r. 5; 229, r. 4, 1. 

N. 

N, roots of nouns in, 56, n. ; nouns in, 
gender of, 58; 61; genitive of, 70; 71; 
final, quantity of, 299, e. ; dropped in the 
3d root of certain verbs, 171, E. 6. 

-nactis, genitive of Greek names in, 78, 

2, (10 

Nam and enim, 198, 7, R., (a.); place of, 
279, 3, (a.) and (c.) 

Names of persons, their order, 279,9,(5.); 
of nations instead of those of countries 255, 
r. 3; 237, r. 5. 

Narro, w. ace. and inf., 272, N. 1. and r. 
6; narror, constr., 271, R. 2. 

Nascor, w. abl., 246, R. 1; nascitur, w. 
subj., 262, r. 3, n. 2. 

Nato, 232, (2.), n. 1; constr. of compds., 
233, (3.), n. 

Natura fert, constr., 262, R. 3., N. 2. 

Naturale est, w. ut and the subj., 262, 

R. 3, N. 3. 

Natus, w. abl., 246; natus. ' old,' w. ace, 
236, n. 3; poet. w. inf., 271, N. 3. 

Natu, 94; 250,1; 126,4. 

Nauci habere, 214, r. 1. 

-ni, enclitic conjunction, 198, 11; quan- 
tity of, 295, R.; as an interrogative parti- 
cle, 198, 11, R., (c); its place, 279, 3, (r.) 

Ne, adv., the primitive negative particle, 
191, in., r. 3, p. 158; w. quidem, ib.; 279, 

3, (</.); w. subjunctives used as impera- 
tives, ib. ; in wishes, asseverations and con- 
cessions, ib. ; 260, R. 6, (b.) with the imper- 
ative, 267, R. 1; ne multa, ne plura, etc., 
229, r. 3, 2;— in intentional clauses, 262, 
r. 5; ne non, for ut, 262. n. 4; ellipsis of, 
262, R. 6; ne, for nedum, 262, N. 5. 

Nee or neque, 198, 1 ; nee non or neque 
non, ib.; nee — nee, with the singular, 209, 
R. 12, (5.), (a.); neque, for et ne, after ut 
and ne, 262. B. 6, H. 4;— nee ipse, 207, R. 27, 



INDEX. 



395 



(b.); nee is, 207, R. 26, (c); necne or annon, 
265, R. 2; necdum, 277, i., R. 16; its place, 
279, 3, (a.) 

Necesse, defective adj., 115, 5; necesse est 
ut, etc., 262, r. 3, n. 2; without ut, 262, 
N. 4; necesse fuit, the indie, for the subj., 
259, r. 3; w. inf. as subject, 269, b. 2; w. 
predicate dat.,269, R. 5; 273, 4. 

Necessity, how expressed, 162, 15. 

Necessario, after comparatives, 256, R. 9. 

Nedum, w. subj., 262, n. 5; without a 
verb. ib. 

Nejas, gender of. 62, e. 2: 94*, w. supine 
in u'. 276. in., r. 2. 

Negatives, two, their force, 277, R. 3 — 5; 
negative joined to the conjunction, as, nee 
quisquam, nee ullus, etc., instead of et nemo, 
et n ullus. etc., 278, r. 9. 

Ifegligens, constr., 213, R. 4, (2.) 

Nego, instead of non dico, 279, 15, (o.); 
w. ace. and inf., 272, N. 1, and r. 6: negor, 
w. inf., 271, n. 1. 

Negotium, ellipsis of, 211, R. 8, N. 

Nemo. 94 and 95 ; for nullus, 207, R. 31 ; 
nemo est qui. 264, 7, N. 2; nemo no7i, 
' every one.' 277. r. 5, (c.) 

Nempe, 191, a, 4; 198, 7, R., (a.) 

Ncoterism. 325, 3. 

Nequa and nequce, 138, 2. 

Nequam, indeclinable, 115, 4; compared, 
125. 5. 

Neque, see nee; for et non, 198, 1, (c); 
neque — n?que, or nee — nee, neque — nee, nee 
— neque, 198. 1, (e.); neque — et, ib. ; neque 
w. general negatives, 279, 15, (o.); neque 
non, 277, R. 3; neque quisquam, ullus, um- 
quain, etc.. 278, R. 9. 

Xt-quto, how conjugated. 182, h. ; w. inf., 
271, K. 4. 

Ne quis or neqais, how declined, 138,2; 
ne quis, instead of ne quisquam, 207, R. 31; 
278. r. 9. 

Nrrio. genitive of. 69, E. 2. 

Nadu an. 198, 11, R., (e.); 265, R. 3; 
nescio quis. 265, R. 4; nescio quomodo, ib. ; 
w. ace. and inf., 272. n. 1. 

Nescius, w. genit.. 213. R. 1, (3.) 

-new and -nus. adjs. in. 128, 1, (6.) 

Neuter, nouns, 34: not found in 1st and 
6th decls.. 40. 9: of 2d decl., 46; 54; of 3d 
decl.. 66; exes, in, 6>i; 67; adjs. used adverb- 
ially, 205, R. 10; adjs. and adj. prons, w. 
genit., 212. r. 3; ace. of denoting degree w. 
another ace. after transitive verbs. 231, R. 5 ; 
verbs. 141; form of. 142. 1: neuter passives, 
142. 2; neuter verbs with cognate, etc., 
subjects. 234. in. : w. cognate ace., 232, (1.) ; 
w. ace. of decree, etc.. 232, (3.); w. abl. of 
agent, 248, n. 2: used impersonally, 184,2; 
in the pissive voice, 142. r. 2: participles 
of. 1ij2. IS; neuters of possessive pronouns 
and adjs. instead of the genitive of their 
j ersonal pronouns, or of a corresponding 
noun, 211, r. 8. (3.), (a.) and (o.) 

Neutral passive verbs, 142. 3. 

Neve or neu, 198, 8; after ' ut and ne, 262. 
N. 4. 

Ni or nisi, 198. 5. R.. {b.); nisi. ' except,' 
261, r. 6; 277, r. 16; nisi quod, ib.; nisi 
ttro t and nisi forte, ' unless perhaps,' ib. 



Nihil, nihilum, 94; w. genitive, 212,R. 1; 
instead of non, 277, r. 2, (&.); 232, (3.); 
nihil aliud quam or nisi, 277, R. 16; nihil, 
ace. w. CBstimo and moror, 214, N. 2 nihili 
w.facio, 214; as ace. of degree, 215, N. 3: 
232. (3.); nihil est quod, etc., 264, 7, N. 2; 
nihil abest, quin, 262, n. 7; nihil antiquius 
habeo or duco quam, w. subj., 273, n. 1; 
nihildum, 211, t., r. 16. 

Nimius, w. genit. or abl., 213. R. 5, (3.) 

Nimio, w. comparatives, 256, R. 16; as 
abl. of price, 252, r. 3. 

-nis, nouns in, gender of, 63, 1. 

Nitor, w. abl., 245, n. ; w. in or ad, 245, 
II., r. 2; w. inf. or subj., 273, 1, n. 1. 

Nix. 56, R. 2 ; genit. sing., 78, (3.); genit. 
plur., 83, ii., 3. 

No, constr. of compds. of, 233, (3.). N. 

Noetic or node. 253, N. 1. 

Nolo, conjugated, 178, 2; constr., 273, 4; 
noli w. inf., paraphrasing the imperative, 
267, n. and R. 3; nollem, meaning of, 260, 
II., R. 2. 

Nomen est, constr.. 226, R. 1; 211, R. 2, 
N.; nomine, without a prep, before the 
genitive following verbs of accusing, 217, 
r. 2, (6.); its place, 279, 9, (b.) 

Nominative, 37; construction of, 209; 
210 ; ellipsis of, 209. r. 1 and 2 ; wanting, 
209, r. 3; w. inf., 209, r. 5; after interjec- 
tions, 209, r. 13; formation in 3d decl. from 
the root, 56; plural, 3d decl., 83; of adjs. 
of 3d decl., 114. See Subject-nominative 
and Predicate-nominative. 

Nomino, 230; pass., 210, R. 3. (3.) 

Non, 191, r. 3; ellipsis of, after non modo, 
etc., followed by ne quidem. 277, R. 6; non 
quo, non quod, non quin, 262, r. 9; non est 
quod, cur, quare, or quamobrem, w. subj., 
264, 7, x. 3; non before a negative word, 
277, R. 3; — before ne quidem, 277, R. 6; 
position of, 279, 15, (b.); non, rare with the 
imperative, 267, R. 1; difference between 
non and haud^ 191, r. 3; non nemo, non 
nulli, non nihil, non numquam, different 
from nemo non, etc.. 277, R. 5, (c); non 
nihil, to some extent, 232, (3.); nonne, 198, 
11, R., (c); non modo — sed etiam. andrJOTt 
modo — sed, equivalent to non dicam — sed, 
277, R. 10; 71071 dubito, non est dubium, 
non ambigo, non jnoad, non abest, quin, 
262, 2, n. 7; non quo non, non quod non, 
or non quia non, instead of non quin ; non 
eo quod, non idea quod, for non quod. 262, 
R. 9: non priusquam, non nisi. w. abl. ab- 
solute. 257, ». 4; nondum, 277, I., R. 16; 
non in the second member of adversative 
sentences without et or vro, 278, R. 11; 
non nisi, separated, 279, 3, (d.) 

Nonce', ' the Nones, : 326, 2. 

Nonnullus, pronominal adj., 139, 5, (1.) 

Nos, for ego, R. 7. 

Nosco, 171, e. 6- 

Noster, how declined, 139, 3. 

Nostras, how declined, 139. 4, (6.) 

Nostrum, how formed, 133, 3; different 
use of nostrum and jiostri, 212, r. 2, N. 2. 

1 Not ' and l nor,' how expressed with the 
imperative, 267, R. 1; with subj., 260, R. 6, 
(o.) 



396 



INDEX. 



Nouns, 26 — 103; proper, common, ab- 
stract, collective, and material, 26 ; gender 
of, 27—34 ; number of, 35 ; cases of, 36, 37 ; 
declension of, 38 — 40; nouns of 3d decl., 
mode of declining, 55 ; compound, declen- 
sion of, 91; irregular, 92; variable, 92; de- 
fective, in case, 94; in number, 95, 96; 
sing, and plur. having different meanings, 
97; redundant, 99; verbal, 102; derivation 
of, 100—102; composition of, 103; how 
modified, 201, til, r. 1; used as adjs., 205, 
R. 11; extent given to the term noun, 24, 
S, 

Novum est ut, 262, r. 3, N. 2. 

Nox, declined, 57; genitive of, 78, 2, (4.); 
genit. plur., 83, n., 3. 

Noxius, w. genit. of the crime, 213, R. 1, 
(3.); 217, R. 1, (a.); w. dat., 222, r. 1, (a.) 

-Ms, participles in, abl. of, ll3, 2; when 
used as nouns, 82, e. 4; nouns in, genit. 
plur. of, 83, it., 4; genit. sing, of, 77, 2, (.2.) 
and e. 1; participials and participles in, 
construction of. 213, R. 1 and 3. 

Nubilo, ecil. cczlo, 257, 9, (1.) 

Nubo, w. dat., 223; quantity of u in 
compds. of. 285, 2, e. 3. 

Nudo, w. abl,, 251, n. 

Nudus, w. abl. or genit., 213, R.5, (4.); 
250, r , (1.); w.acc, 213, r.4, (3.) 

Nullus, how declined, 107 ; a pronominal 
adj., 139, 5, (1.); for non, 205, r. 15; refers 
to more than two, 212, r. 2, N., (b.) nullus 
est, qui, w. subj., 264, 7, N. 2: nullus non. 
277, R. 5, (c.) ; nullius and nullo, instead of 
neminis and nemine, 207, R- 3l, (c); nul- 
lusdum, 277, I., R. 16. 

Num, with its compounds, meaning of, 
198, 11, R., (o.); num — an, used only in 
direct questions, 265, R. 2. 

Number, 26, 7; of nouns, 35; of verbs, 
146; of the verb when belonging to two or 
more subjects, 209, r. 12; when belonging 
to a collective noun, 209, k. 11. 

Numbers, cardinal, 117, 118; ordinal, 
119, 120: distributive, 119, 120; w. geuit. 
plur., 212, R. 2. (4.) 

Numerals, adjs., 104.105; classes of, 117; 
placed in the relative clause, 206, (7.), (6.); 
v. genit. plur., 212, r. 2, (4.): letters, 118, 
7; adverbs, 119; 192, 3; multiplicative, 121; 
proportional, temporal, and interrogative, 
121. 

Nummus, 327, R. 3, (b.) 

Numquam non, and non numquam. 217, 
R.4, (c.) 

Numquis, nirm quis, or numqui, etc., 
how declined, 137, 3: numquis est qui, 264, 
7, n.2; numqua and ninvqucp., 137, r.4; 
numquid, as an interrogative particle, 198, 

Numquisnam, 137, 4. 

Nun*-, xiseof. 277, r.15; nunc — nunc, 277, 
r. 8: nunc and etiamnunc, w. imperfect 
B-.d perfect, 259, K. 1, (b.) 

Nwncupo, w. two aces., 230. n.1; nvneu- 
r or, 210, r. 3, (3.) 

Nundina>, 326, 2, (11.) 

Nuntio, 273, 2, i.e.); 272. n. 1; pass. w. 
inf., 271, n. 1; mmtiatur. constr.. 271, r. 2. 

Nuper, modo and mox, 191, r. 6. 



Nusquam, w. genit., 212, r. 4, N. 2, lb.) 

Nux, pr., 284,8,5, R. 2. 

-nx, nouns in, genitive of, 65, 6, 7. 

0. 

O, sound of, 7, 8 ; changed to u in form- 
ing certain nominatives from the root, 56, 
I., R. 4, and n., r. 4; nouns in, gender of, 
58, 59; genitive of, 69; Greek nouns in, 
gender of, 59, e. 3; genitive of, 69, e. 3; 
amplificatives in, 100, 4, (a.); verbals in, 
102, 6, (c); adverbs in, 192; increment in, 
of 3d decl., 287. 3; of plur., 288; of verbs, 
290; final, quantity of, 285, R. 4; 297; 
sometimes used for u after v, 322, 8; 53; 
178, 1, n. 

O, interj. w. nom., 209, r. 15; w. ace, 
238,2; w. voc, 240, r. 1; 0«,w. subj., 
263, 1. 

Ob, government of, 195, 4; 275, ill., R. 3; 
in composition, 196, r., 9; construction of 
verbs compounded with, 224; of adjs., 222, 

R. 1, (b.) 

Obedio, how formed, 189, n. 3. 

Obequito, constr., 233, (3.) 

Obeo, constr., 233, (3. ), N. ; pass., 234, in. 

Object, of an active verb, 229; the dative 
of the remote object, 223, N. 

Objective genitive, 211, k. 2; after adjs., 
213; dat. for objective genitive, 211, r. 5; 
— propositions after what, 273, n. 8. 

Oblique cases, 37; their place, 279, 10 
and 2. 

Obliviscor, w. genitive or ace, 216; w. 
ace. and inf., 272, n. 1. 

Obnoxius, w. dat., 222, r. 1, (6.) 

Obruo, w. abl., 249, i., r. 1. 

Obsecro, w. two aces., 231, R. 1. 

Obsequor, obiempero, and obtrecto, w. dat., 
223, r. 2. 

Observo, w. ut or ne, 262. ft: 3. 

Obses, gender of, 30; genitive of, 73, E. 1. 

Obsonor, w. abl. of price, 252, r. 1. 

Obsto, and obsisto, quominus, etc., 262, 

Obtemperatio, w. dat., 222, r. 8. 

Obtrector, constr.. 223, (1.). (a.) 

Obvius, w. dat., 222, r. 1, (6.) 

Obviam, w. dat., 228, 1. 

Occasio, w. genit. of gerunds, 275, in., 
R.l, (1.) ' 

Occumbo, w. dat., 224; w. ace, 224 r. 5. 

Occurro, w. dat., 224; w. ace, 233, (3.); 
occurrit ut, 262. r. 3, n. 1. 

Ocior, comparison of, 126, 1. 

-ocis, genitive in, 78, (4.) ; 112, 2. 

Octonarius, 304, 2; — iambic, 314, m. 

Odi, 183, 1. 

-odis, genitives in, 76, E. 5; 75, E. 1. 

-odus, Greek nouns in, 49, 2. 

CE, how pronounced, 9; in nom. plur. 2d 
decl., 54, 2. 

CE/ipus, genitive of, 76, E. 5. 

(Eta, gender of, 42. 

Officio, w. quominus, etc., 262, R. 11. 

Ohe. pr.. 283, i., e. 5; 295, e. 5. 

Oi, how pronounced, 9, 1. 

-ois, genitives in, 75, e. 2; words in, pr., 
283, I., e. 6, (3.) 



INDEX. 



397 



Old, how expressed in Latin, 236, N. 3. 

Oleo and redoleo, w. ace, 232, (2.) 

OH us, for Me, whence olli, masc. plur. for 
illi, 134, r. 1. 

-olus, a, um, diminutives in, 100, 3, A. 2. 

-om, for -ww, 53. 

Omission of a letter or syllable, see syn- 
cope — of a word, see ellipsis. 

Omnes, w. genitive plur., 212, r. 2, n. 6; 
omnium, w. superlatives, 127, 4, n. 2; 
omnia, ace. of degree, 232, (3.) 

-on, Greek nouns in, 54, 1; -on for -orum, 
54, 4; -on, roots in, of 3ddecl., 56, n., r. 1; 
nouns in, of 3d decl., 58 and 61, 5; genit. 
plur. in. of Greek nouns, 83, n., 6; -os and 
-on, nouns in, of 2d decl., changed to -us 
and -inn, 54, 1- 

Onustus. w. abl. or genit., 213, r. 5, (4.) 

Operam dare, w. ut, 273, n. 1; w. dat. of 
gerund, 275, m., r. 2, (1.); w. ace. id, 232, 
(3.); — opera mea, equivalent to^er me, 247, 
R. 4. 

Opinio est, w. ace. and inf., 272, R. 1; 
opinione after comparatives, 256, r. 9; its 
place, 279, n. 1. 

Opinor, w. ace. and inf., 272, N. 1. 

Oportet, w. inf. as its subject, 269, R. 2; 
w. inf.. ace. with the inf., or the subj., 273, 
x. 5; without ut, 262, r. 4. 

Oportebat, oportuit, the indie, instead of 
the subj., 259, r. 3, (a.) 

Oppido, w. adjs., 127, 2. 

Oppidum, in apposition to names of 
towns. 237, r. 2, (».) 

Oppleo, w. abl., 249, 1., R. 1. 

Optabilius erat, the indie, instead of the 
eubj..259, r. 3. 

Optime, instead of abl. of price, 252, r. 3. 

Opto, 271, r. 4,- 273,4; opto, w. subj., 
without ut, 262, r. 4. 

Opulentus, w. genit. or abl., 213. r. 5, (3.) 

Opus, work, declined, 57; opus, need, 
w. genit. and ace, 211, r. 11; w. abl. of 
the thing, 243 ; as subject or predicate of 
est. 243, r. 2; 210, &. 5; w. perfect par- 
ticiple, 243, r. 1; w. supine in u, 276, in., 
R. 2; opus est, w. inf. as subject, 269, r. 2. 

-or, nouns in, gender of, 58; 61; genit. 
of, 70; 71; verbals in, 102, 1; 102, 6. 

Oratin obliqua, 266, 1, n., and 2; 273, 3; 
tenses in, 266, r. 4. 

Orbo, w. abl.. 251. N. 

Orbus, w. abl., 250. 2, (1.); or genit., 213, 
R. 5. (4.) 

Order, advs. of. 191. 1. 

Ordinal numbers, 119, 120; in expressions 
of time, 236. R. 2. 

Origin, participles denoting, w. abl., 246; 
from a country expressed by a patrial, 246, 
r. 3. 

-oris, genitives in, 76 ; 112, 2 ; -oris, genit. 
in, 75. 

-orium, verbals in, 102, 8. 

Oriundus, constr., 246. 

Oro, w. two aces., 231, r. 1; w. ut, ne, or 
inf.. 273. 2. H. 4; without ut, 262, r. 4. 

Orthoepy, 6—23. 

Orthography, 2—5; figures of. 322. 

Ortus, w. abl., 246. 

-05, nouns in, of 2d decl., 54, 1; of 3d 
34 



decl., gender of, 58 and 61, 3; genit. of, 75; 
Greek genitives in, 68, 1; final in plural 
aces., sound of, 8. k. 3; quantity of, 300. 

Os, (oris), gender of, 61, 3; genit. of, 75; 
wants genit. plur., 94. 

Os, (os sis), gender of, 61, 3; genit. of, 75, 
E. 1. 

Ossa, gender of, 42, 1. 

Ostendo, w. ace. and inf., 272, n. 1. 

-osus, adjs. in, 128, 4. 

-oiis, genit. in, 75; 112, 2. 

' Ought ' or 'should,' expressed by indie. 
ofdebeo, 259, R. 4, (2.) 

-ox, nouns in, genit. of; 78, 2, (4.) 

Oxymoron, 324, 26. 



P, roots of nouns ending in, 56, I. ; when 
inserted after m in 2d and 3d roots of verbs, 
171, 3. 

Pace or in pace, 253, N. 1 ; 257, R. 9, (2.) 

Palatals, 3, 1. 

Palleo, w. ace, 232, n. 1. 

Pan, ace. of, 80, R. 

Pan thus, voc. of, 54, 5. 

Par, abl. of. 82, e. 1, (6.); 113. e. 3; su- 
perlative of, 126, 2; w. dat. or genit., 222, 
r. 2, (a.); w. cum and the abl., 222, r. 6; 
par erat, indie, instead of subj., 269, r. 3, 
(a.); pr.. 284. n. 1; par ac, 198, 3. 

Parabola, 324, 30. 

Paradigms, of nouns, 1st decl., 41; 2d 
decl., 46; 3d decl., 57; 4th decl., 87; 5th 
decl., 90:— of adjs. of 1st and 2d decl., 105 
—107; 3d decl., 108— 111:— of verbs, sum, 
153; 1st conj., 155, 156; 2d conj., 157; 3d 
con j., 158, 159; 4th conj.. 160; deponent, 
161; periphrastic, conj., 162; defective, 183 ; 
impersonal, 184. 

Paragoge. 322, 6. 

Paratus, constr., 222, r. 4, (2.) 

Parco, w. dat., 223, R. 2, n., (a.); parti- 
tur mini, ib., (c); w. inf., 271. N. 3. 

Parens, w. genit. or abl., 213, r. 5, (2.); 
w. in, 213, R. 4, (2.) 

Paregmenon. 324, 24. 

Parelcon, 323, 2, (1.) 

Parenthesis. 324, 4, (6.) 

Pariter ac, 198, 3. 

Paro, constr., 273, N. 1; w. inf., 271, N.l. 

Paroemiac verse, 304, 2. 

Paronomasia, 324, 25- 

Pario, compds. of, 163, E. 4. 

Parsing, 281, m. 

Pars, ace. of, 79, 4; abl. of, 82, e. 5, (a.); 
ellipsis of. 205. R. 7; its use in fractional 
expressions, 121, 6; magnam and maxi~ 
mam partem. 234, n., R. 3; multis partibus, 
256, R. 16, (3.) 

Part, ace. of, 234, ir. 

Particeps, genit. of, 112,2; genit. plur. 
of, 114, e. 2; 115, 1, (o.)— w. genit., 213, 
R. 1, (3.) 

Participial adjs., 130; — of perfect tense, 
meaning of, with tenses of sum, 162, 12, (2.); 
w. genit., 213, R. 1, [2.) 

Participles, 25 and 148, 1; in us, how de- 
clined, 105. r. 2; in ns, do., Ill; abl. sing, 
of, 113, 2 ; participles of activa verbs, 148, 



398 



INDEX. 



1, (2.) ; of neuter verbs, 148, 1, (3.) ; 162, 16 ; 
of deponent verbs, 162, 17 ; of neuter pas- 
sive verbs, 162, 18; in -rus, genit. plur. of, 
162, 19; pres. and perf. compounded with 
in, 162, 21; when they become adjs. or 
nouns, 162, 22; cases of in compd. tenses, 
162, 12, 13 ; sometimes with esse indeclina- 
ble, 162, 13, (1.); in -rus with sum, force of, 
162, 14; how modified, 202, it., (3.); agree- 
ment of, 205 ; agreement with a predicate 
nom. instead of the subject, 205, R. 5; 
gender when used impersonally, 205, R. 18; 
perfect denoting origin, with abl., 246; in 
abl. absolute, 256; — passive of naming, etc., 
with predicate abl., 257, R. 11; their gov- 
ernment, 274; their time how determined, 
274, 2, and 3; perfect in circumlocution, 
for abl. of cause, 247, 1, R. 2, \b.); with 
habeo, etc., 274, 2, R.-4; for a verbal noun, 
274. 2, r. 5; for clauses, 274, 3. 

Participo, poetically, w. genit., 220, 2. 

Particles, 190, 1. 

Parthn, 79, 4; partim, w. genit., 212, 
r. 4; partim — partim, w. genit. or ex, 277, 
». 8. 

Partitive nouns, 212, r. 1;— adjs., 104, 9; 
— partitives with plur. verbs, 209, r. 11; 

211, R. 1; w. genit. plur., 212; ellipsis of, 

212, R, 2, n. 3; w. ace. or abl., 212, r. 2, 
n. 4; genit. sing, after neuter adjs. and 
pronouns, 212, r. 3. 

Parts of speech, 24, 2 and 3. 

Parum, its meaning, 191, in. ; compared, 
194, 4; w. genit., 212, r.4. 

Parumper, its meaning, 191, n. 

Parvus, compared, 125, 5; parvi, w. 
verbs of valuing, 214, r. 1, (a.), (1.); 
parvo, with comparatives, 256. r. 16 ; after 
cestimo, 214, R. 2, x. 2; as abl. of price, 
252. r. 3. 

Pasco, 171, R. 6. 

Passive voice, 141. 2; construction of, 
234 ; passive voice with a reflexive pronoun 
understood as the agent equivalent to the 
middle voice in Greek, 248, r. 1, (2.); with 
ace. of the thing 234, i. 

Pateo, w. two dats., 227. R. 1. 

Pater, declined, 57. 

Pater-familias, etc., how declined, 43, 2. 

Pathetic or emotive word, 279, 2, [e.) 

Potior. 273. 4; 262. r. 4; patiens, w.gen., 

213, R.l, (2.); w. inf., 271. M. 3. 

Patrial nouns. 100, 2; in o, genitive of, 
69, k.;— adjs., 104. 10; 128, 6, (a.); ellipsis 
of their substantive, 205, r. 7: pronouns, 
139,4. 

Patrocinor, w. flat., 223. R. 2. 

Patronymics, 100, 1 ; in -es, genit. plur. 
in van instead of -arum, 43, 2; in as and is 
used as adjs., 205. r. 11; quantity of their 
penult, 291. 4 and 5. 

Parua, ace. of degree, 232, (3.) 

Paulisper, its meaning. 191. ti. 

Paulo, w. comparatives, 256, R. 16; pau- 
lum abest quin, 272, n. 7. 

Pauper, abl. of, 113, e. 2; defective, 115, 
1, (a.); w. genit. or abl., 213, r. 5, (2.) 

Pairidus, w. genit., 2l3, r. 1. 

Pavor est ne, etc., 262, n. 3. 

Peats, (-udis), genit. of, 67, e. 3. 



Peculiaris, 222, R. 2, (a.) 
Pedes, gender of, 31, 2; genit. of, 73, 2: 
(expedites, 209. R. 11, (1.), (b.) 
Pejero, pr., 285, 2, E. 1. 
Pelagus, gender of, 51; ace. plur. of, 54, 
5; 94. 
Pello, in, e. 1,(6.); 251, N. 
Pendo, w. genit. of value, 214; w. abl. of 
price, 252, r. 1. 

Pensi and pili habere, 214, R. 1. 
Pentameter verse. 304, 2; 311; 312, IX., X. 

Penthemimeris, 304, 5. 

Penult, 13 ; quantity of, 291 ; of proper 
names, 293. 

Per, its uses, 195, R. 9; 247, 1, R. 1; w. 
the means when a person, 247, 3, R.4; in 
adjurations, 279, 10, («.); in composition, 
196, i., 10; per compounded with adjectives 
strengthens their meaning, 127, 2. 

Perceiving, verbs of, their construction, 
272. 

Percipio, w. ace. and inf., 272, y. 1; per- 
ceptum habeo, instead of percepi, 274, R. 4. 

Percontor, w. two aces., 231, R. 1. 

Perennis, abl. of, 113. E. 1. 

Perdo, w. capitis, 217, R. 3; perditum ire, 
for perdere, 276, II., R.2. 

Perduim, for per dam, 162, 1. 

Perfect tense, 145, iv. ; definite and in- 
definite, 145, iv., r. ; old form in sim, 162, 
9; quantity of dissyllabic perfects, 284, e. 1. 
perfect participles translated actively, 162, 
16; both actively and passively, 162. 17, 
(a.); — of neuter verbs. 162, 18; of imper- 
sonal verbs, 184, R. 2; the perf. subj., 260, 
ii., r. 1, (3.); in the connection of tenses, 
258; signification of perf. definite, 259, r. 1, 
(2.), (a.); of perf. indefinite, ib., (&.)— (d.); 
perf. subj., signification of, 260, n., R. 1, 
(3-), and r. 4 and 6: in the protasis, 261, 2 
and r. 2 and 3; 263, R. ; perf. subj. for im- 
perative, 267, R. 2; perf. inf., how used, 
268, r. 1, (a.); perf. participle, 274, 2 and 
n.; supplies the place of a pres. pass, par- 
ticiple, 274, R. 3, (a.); perf. part, of a pre- 
ceding verb used to express the completion 
of an action, ib., (b.): w. habeo, 274. r.4; 
w. do, reddo, euro, etc., ib.; supplies the 
place of a verbal noun, 274, r. 5: used in 
circumlocution for abl. of cause, 247, R. 2, 
(b.); neuter perf. pass, participle used as 
the subject of a verb. 274, r. 5, (b.) 

Perficio ut, 273. N. 2. 

Pergo, constr., 225, IV. ; w. inf., 271, N. 1. 

Perkibeo, 230, N. 1; 272, n. 1, and r. R; 
perhibeor, 210, R. 3, (3.); w. inf., 271. N. 1. 

Periclitor, capitis or capite, 217, R. 3. 

Period, 280. 

Perinde, 191, in. ;— ac or atque, 198, 3, R. 

Periphrasis, 323,2, (4.) 

Periphrastic conjugations, 162, 14 and 15. 

Peritus, 213, R. 1. and r. 4; 275, (2.); 
270, r. 1; w. ad, 213, r. 4, (2.); 225, m., 
r. 1, (2.) 

Permisceo, 245, n., 2, and R. 1 and 2. 

Permitto, 73, 4: w. part. fut. pass., 274, 
r. 7; w. subj. without ut, 262, R. 4. 

Permuto, 252, r. 5. 

Pemox, genit. of, 112, 2. 

Perosus, 183, 1, N. 



INDEX. 



399 



Perpello, 273, N. 4. 

Perpes, in genit. sing., 112, 1; 115, 2. 

Persevero, w. inf., 271, N. 1. 

Personal pronouns, 132, 4 ; ellipsis of as 
subject-nominatives, 209, R. 1; expressed 
with infinitive, 272. N . 4 ; —personal termi- 
nations of verbs, 147. 3. 

Personification. 324. 34. 

Person of a noun or pronoun, 35, 2; 132, 
4; of a verb, 147; used in the imperative, 
147. 2 ; 1st and 2d persons used indefinitely, 
209, a. 7; of verbs with nominatives of dif- 
ferent persons, 209, r. 12. 

Perspectum habeo, instead of perspexi, 
274. R. 4. 

Persuadeo } w. dat., 223, N., (b.); hoe per- 
suadetur mihi, 223, N., (c.);— -persnasum 
mihi habeo, 274, R. 4. 

Pertazsum est, constr., 229, R. 6; 215, (1.) 
and n. 2. 

Pertineo, ellipsis of, 209, R. 4. 

Peto, constr., 230, a. 2; 231, a. 4; peto 
ut, 273, s. 4; 262, a. 4. 

Pes and compds., genit. of, 73, E. 1; 112, 
1; abl. of, 113, e. 2; pr., 284, n. 1; 300, 
«. 2, (b.) 

PA, in syllabication, 18, 2 ; when silent, 
12, R. 

Phalecian verse, 304, 2; pentameter, 
312, x. 

Piger, declined, 106 ; constr., 222, R. 4, (2.) 

Piget, w. genit., 215; w. ace, 229, R. 6; 
participle and gerund of, 184, R. 3. 

Pili habere, etc., 214, R. 1. 

Place, advs. of, 191, i. ; 192, ni. ; genit. 
of, 221; ace. of, 237; dat. of, 237, R. 3; 
place where, abl. of, 254; — whence, abl. of, 
255; through which, 255, 2; place of a foot 
in verse, 309, n. 

Plants, gender of their names, 29. 

Plaudo, change of aw in its compds., 189, 
K. 3. 

Plenty or want, adjs. of, w. abl., 250. 

Plenus, w. genit. or abl., 213, R. 5, (3.); 
250, 2, (1.) 

Pleonasm, 323, 2. 

-plex, adjs. in, abl. of, 113, E. 3; how de- 
clined, 121, 1. 

Plerique, w. genit. plur., 212, r. 2. (1.) 

Pluperfect tense, 145, v.; old form in 
sem. 162, 9; for the historical perfect, 259, 
a. 1.(3.) 

Plural number, 35, 1 ; when wanting, 95 ; 
nouns only plur., 96; plur. of Greek nouns 
of 1st decl., 45, 2; do. of 2d decl., 54, 2;— 
nouns used for singular, 98; nos for ego, 
209, r.7, (6.); of verbs with collective nouns, 
209, a. 11; the plur. of abstract nouns, 95, 
a. ; plur. nouns in apposition to two or 
more nouns in the singular, 204, a. 5. 

Plurimum, w. genit., 212, a. 3; plurimi 
and plurimo after verbs of buying, etc., 
214. a. 1. (1.), and a. 3, N. 2; plurimo, abl. 
of price. 252, r. 3. 

Plus, declined, 110; w. genit., 212, a. 3, 
K. 1, (a.); with numerals, etc., with or 
without quam, 256, a. 6; plus for magis, 
277, a. 12; plure, abl. of price, 252, a. 3. 

Po&ma, declined, 57. 

Poems, gender of names of, 29. 



Panitet, w. genit., 215; w. subj., 215, R. ; 
w. ace, 229, a. 6; participles of, 184, a. 3; 
w. quod, 273, n. 6. 
Po'csis, declined, 86. 

Poetical arrangement of words, 279, 3, 
(e.); 16, n. 4. 

-politanus, adjs. in, 128, 6, (g.) 
Pollens, w. genit. or abl., 213, R. 5, (4.); 
cf. r. 4, (1.) 

Polliceor, w. ace. and inf., 272, N. 1. 

Polyptoton, 324, 23. 

Polysyndeton, 323, 2, (2.) 

Pondo, indeclinable, 94; pondo libram or 
libras, 211, a. 6, (4.); 236, r. 7. 

Pono, 171, e. 2; 230, R.2; 241, R. 5; pr., 
284, a. 2, (c); 229, r. 4, 1. 

Posco, w. two aces., 231; 230. a. 2; w. ut, 
etc., 273, n. 4; in pass., 234, i. 

Position in prosody, 283, iv. 

Positive degree, 122, 4. 

Possessive, adjs., 104; pronouns, 139; to 
what equivalent, 132, 6; how used, 207, 
a. 36; 211, a. 3; ellipsis of when reflexive, 
207, a. 36 ; used for subjective and posses- 
sive genit., 211, a. 3, (&.), andR. 8,(3.), (a.); 
for objective genit., 211, a. 3, (c); so pos- 
sessive adjectives, 211. r. 4, and a. 8, (3.), 
(b.) ; mea, tua, etc., after refert and interest. 
219, r. 1. 

Possideo, w. perf. pass, part., 274, r. 4. 

Possum, conjugated. 154. r. 7; with su- 
perlatives, 127, 4; w. inf., 271, N. 1; pote- 
rat, the indie, for the subj., 259, r. 3; pos- 
sum for possem, 259, r. 4, (2.) 

Post, postquam, etc., how pronounced, 
8, e. 4; post, its case, 195, 4; post in com- 
position, 196, 11 ; 197, 14 ; constr. of verbs 
compounded with, 224; with concrete offi- 
cial titles, 233, r. 3; w. ace. and abl. of 
time, 233, r. 1; ellipsis of, 235, n. 3; w.abl. 
like a comparative, 256, r. 16, (3.) 

Postea loci, 212, R. 4, n. 4. 

Postera, defective, 115, 5 ; compared, 125, 
4; derivation, 130, v. 

Posterior and postremus, instead of pos- 
tering and postremum, 205, r. 15. 

Postquam and posteaqnam, w. historical 
perfect instead of pluperfect, 259, a. 1, (2.), 
(rf.) 

Postulo, w. two aces., 231, r. 1; w. ace. 
and genit., 217, a. 1; w. de or the simple 
abl., 217, a. 2; w. subj., without ut, 262, 
a. 4. 

Potens, w. genit., 213. a. 1, (3.); w. in or 
arfandace, 212, a. 4, (2.) 

Potior, w. abl., 245, I.; w. ace, 245. r., 
a.; w. genit., 220, (4.); potiundus, 162, 20; 
273, ii., a. 1. 

Potis, defective, 115, 5. 

Potius, compared, 194, 4; used pleonasti- 
cally. 256. R. 13. 

Potus, translated actively, 162, 16. 

Prai, in composition w. adjs., 127, 2; w. 
verbs, 197; before adjs., 127, 6; constr. of 
verbs compounded with, 224; pro,, with 
comparatives, 127, 6; 256, a. 13, \b.) 

Prcebeo, w. two aces., 230, N. 1. 

Prcecedo, constr., 233, (3.), and n.; 224, 
R. 5. 

Prcscello, prceeo, etc., 224, 8, and a. 6. 



400 



INDEX. 



Praceps, abl. of, 113, R. 2, and s. 1. 

Pracipio, constr., 223. (1.), (&•) 

Prcecipito, 229, r. 4, 1. 

Prmcipue, prcesertim, etc., 193, It., 2. 

Prcecurro, constr., 224, 8, and a. 5. 

Prardium, ellipsis of, 255, h. 3. 

Pratditus, w. abl., 244. 

Prceneste, gender of, 66. e., and 29, E. 

Prcenomen, its place, 279. 9. {b.) 

Prcepes, genit. sing, of, 112, 1; genit. 
plur., 114, s. 2. 

PrcBscribo, w. ut, etc., 273, 2, it. 4. 

Prcesens, declined, 111; abl. of, 113, R. 2. 

Presses, gender of, 30; 61, 2; genit. of. 
73, e. 1. 

Prcesto, 233, (3.). and n.; 230. if. 1; 224, 
8, and r. 5; 256, r. 16. (3.);—prcesto, adv., 
w. dat., 228, 1;— prcssto sunt, qui, w. subj., 
264, 6, n. 1. 

Prastolor, w. dat., 223, R. 2, if. ; w. ace, 

223, (1.), (a.) 

Prceter, w. adjs., 127, 6; w. comparatives, 
256, r. 13, (b.); as an adverb, 191, in. 

Prcntereo, w. quod, 273. 5, (1.) 

Prceterit, constr. of, 229, R. 7. 

Prceterquam quod. 277, R. 16. 

Prceterveho, 233, (2.) 

Prcevertor, w. dat., 224, 8 and r. 5. 

Precor, w. two aces., 231 ; w. ut, 273, N. 4; 
u* omitted, 262, r. 4. 

Predicate, 201; 203; — predicate-nomina- 
tive, 210; .differing in number from the 
6ubject-noniinative, 210, R. 2; instead of 
dat. of the end. 227, R. 4 ; after what verbs, 
210, r. 3 and 4 ; pred. adjs., 210, r. 1 ; after 
esse, haberi, judicari, videri, etc., 271, \". 2; 
— predicate-accusative, 210, (6.); dative, 
210, (c); abl., 210, (d.); 257, R. 11. 

Prepositions, 195 — 197; in composition, 
196; with nouns, 103; with adjs., 131, 11— 
13; with verbs, 196; change of in composi- 
tion, 103, r. 2; 131, R. ; 196, (a.); insepara- 
ble, 196, (b.); w. ace, 195, 4; 235; w. abl., 
195, 5; 241; w. ace. and abl., 195, 6; 235, 
(2.) — (5.); used as adverbs, 195, R. 4; how 
modified, 202, n., R. 2; verbs compounded 
with, w. dat., 224; w. ace, 233; w. abl., 
242; compds. of ad, con, and in, with ace. 

224, r. 4; repeated after compds., 224, r. 4; 
233, R. 2; how interchanged, ib!; compds. 
of ad, ante, etc., with neuter verbs of mo- 
tion, 224, r. 5; 233, r. 1; repetition of 
prepositions, 233, R. 2; 277, n., 3 and 4; 
prepositions of one syllable, pr'., 285, 2, n. 1, 
and e. 5; ellipsis of, 232, (2.); 235, r. 11.; 
ellipsis of their case, 235, R. 10; their place, 
279, 10 ; quantity of di, se and red, 285, R. 
2 and 3; put after their case, 279, 10, r., 
(/.); repeated, 277, n., 4. 

Present tense, 145, t. ; a principal tense. 

258, A. ; indicative pres. for historical perf., 

259, R. 1, (a.); for the fut., 259, r. 1, (b.); 
for imperf. or perf. w. dam, 259, R. 1, (c); 
Bubj. pres., use of, 260, n., r. 1, (1.); used 
to soften an assertion, 260, u., r. 4; to ex- 
press a wish, command, etc., 260, r. 6; 267, 
r.2; imperative pres., how used, 145, R. 3; 
267, (1.); infinitive pres., how used. 268, 
r. 1, (a.), and r. 3. ; 272, r. 4 and 5; par- 
ticiple pres., how declined, 111, r. ; what It 



denotes, 274, 2 and w. ; denoting something 
about to be done, 274, R. 1 ; also a purpose, 
274, r. 2, (a.); and a state or condition, 
274, r. 2, (6.); present pass, participle, 
how supplied, 274, r. 9. 

Preterites. 145, n. 2; 258, B. ; preterites 
of the indicative used for the pluperfect 
subjunctive, 259, r. 4, (1.) 

Preteritive verbs, 183, i. 

Pretii and pretio, 214, R. 2, n. 3; ellipsis 
of, 252, r. 3. 

Priapean verse, 310, tt. 

Price, ablative of, 252 ; genitive of tanti, 
etc., 214, r. 1. 

Pridie, w. genit., 212, r. 4, N. 6;w. ace, 
238,1. 

Primus, medius, etc., how translated, 
205, R. 17; their place, 279, 7; prior, pri- 
mus, for prius, primum, 205. r. 15. 

Priiiceps, genit. of, 112. 2; abl. of, 113, 
e. 2; 115. 1, (a.); used instead of an adverb 
of time, 205, R. 15. 

Principal parts of a verb, 151, 4: — propo- 
sitions. 201, 5; — parts of a proposition, 202, 
5; tenses, 255, A. 

Principio, abl. of time, 253, N. 

Priusquam, with what mood, 263, 3. 

Privo, w. abl., 251, N. 

Pro, constr. of verbs compounded with, 
224; w. abl. for predicate nom., 210, N. 3; 
for predicate ace, 230, n. 4; in composition, 
quantity of, 285, e. 5, and r. 7; pro nihilo 
duco, etc., 214, r. 2, n. 2; pro eo and pro- 
inde ac, 198, 3, R. 

Proclivis, 222, R. 4, (2.) ; 276, m., R. 1. 

Procul, w. abl., 195, R. 3; 241, r. 2. 

Prodigus, w. genit. or abl., 2l3, R. 5, (2.); 
w. in, 213, r. 4, (2.) 

Prodo, w. ace and inf., 272, n. 1, and 
r. 6. 

Proditur, constr., 271, R. 2. 

Proficiscor, w. two datives, 227, R. 1. 

Prohibeo, 251, R.2; w. quominus, 262, r. 
11 ; 273, 4 ; w. genit., 220, 2 ; w. abl., 251, n. ; 
w. dat. or abl., 224, r. 2; w. ace and inf., 
272, r. 6. 

Proinde, adv., 191, in. ; proinde ac, 198, 
3, R. 

Prolepsis, 323, 1, (b.) and (4.) 

Promitto, constr., 272, n.4; 217, R. 3, (c.) 

Pronouns, 132—139; simple, 132, 2; 
neuter w. genit., 212, r. 3, n. 1. 

Pronominal adjs., 139, 5. 

Pronunciation of Latin, 6. 

Pronus, constr., 222, r. 4, (2.) 

Prope est, w. ut and the subj., 262, r. 3, 

N. 1. 

Proper nouns, 26, 2 ; found only in 1st, 
2d, and3ddecls., 40^9. 

Propero, w. inf., 271, n. 1. 

Propinquo, 225. R. 2. 

Propinquus, w. the dat. or genit., 222, 
R.2, (a.) 

Propior, how compared, 126, 1; propior 
and prozimus. w. dat., 222, r. 1; w. ace, 
222, r. 5; 238,1; instead of propius, prox- 
imo, 205, R. 15; proximum est, w. ut and 
the subj., 262. r. 3, N. 1. 

Propius and proximt, constr., 228, J, 
and R. 



INDEX. 



401 



Proportional, adjs.. 121, 2. 

Proposition, 201, 1; analysis of, 281. 

Proprius, constr., 222, R. 2, (a.) 

Prorumpo, constr., 226, R. 4, 1. 

Prosodiac verse, 304, 2. 

Prosody, 282—321 ; figures of, 305—307. 

Prosopopoeia, 324, 34. 

Prosper and prosperus, 105, N. ; w. genit. 
orabl., 213, r. 5, (2.) 

Prosthesis, 322, 1. 

Prosto, w. abl. of price, 252, r. 1. 

Prosum, 154, r. 6. 

Provideo, constr., 223, (1.), (a.) 

Protasis and apodosis, 261 ; import of the 
different tenses in the protasis and apodo- 
eis. 261, 1 and 2. 

Providus, w. genit., 213, R. 1, (3.) 

Prudens, w. genit., 223, R. 1, (3.) 

Ps, initial, 12, r. :— ps, nouns in, genit. 
of, 77, 2, (1.) 

-pse , enclitic, 135, R. 3. 

Pt, initial, 12, r. 

-pte, enclitic, 133, R. 2; 139. 

Pubes and impubes, genit. of, 112, 1; abl. 
of, 113. E. 2; 115, 1, (a.) 

Pudet, w. genit., 215; w. inf., 215; w. 
ace, 229, r. 6; w. perf. inf., 268, R. 2; w. 
sup. in u, 276, in., k. 2; participle in dus, 
and gerund of, 184, r. 3. 

Puer. instead of in pueritia, 253, r. 6. 

Pueritia, how used in the abl., 253, N. 1. 

Pugna, for in pugna, 253, N. 1; pugnam 
pug7iare, 232, (1.) 

Pugnatur, conjugated, 184, 2. (b.) 

Pulchre, instead of abl. of price, 252, R. 3. 

Punctuation, 5. 

Punio, constr., 217, R. 5. 

Punishment, constr. of words denoting, 
217, r. 3. 

Purgo, w. genit., 217, R. 1; 220, 2; w. 
abl., 251, n. 

Purpose, denoted by ut, etc., with the 
subj., 262; by participles, 274, 2, r. 2, 6 
and 7; by inf., 271; 273, n. 4, (6.); by 
gerund. 2*75, in., u. 2, and (1.), (2.); by 
supine in -am, 276, II. 

Purus, w. genit. or abl., 213, R. 5, (3.); 
cf. 251, n. 

-pus, Greek nouns in, genit. of, 76, e. 5. 

Puto, w. genit. of value, 214; w. abl. of 
price, 252, r. 1; w. two aces., 230, i». 1, 
and n. 4; w. ace. and inf., 272. n. 1; puta- 
res, 260, u., R. 2; putor, 210, r. 3, (3.), (c); 
w. inf., 271, N. 1. 



Qu before s in verbal roots, 171, 1 

Qua, adverbial correlative, 191, r. 1. 

Qua — qua, for et — et, 111, R. 8. 

Qu&ro, constr., 231, r. 4; poet. w. inf., 
271 ». 3. 

QueBso, 183, 7; constr., 262, r. 4. 

Qualis, 139, 5,(3.); w. comparatives, 256, 
R. 10. (b.) 

Qualisqualis or qualiscumque, 139, 5; 
207 r. 29. 

Qualis— talis, 206, (16.) 

Quam, w. comparatives, 256; w. the su- 
perlative, with or without possum, 127, 4; 
34* 



ellipsis of after plus, minus, amplius, etc., 
256, r. 6 and 7 ; quam qui and superlative 
after tarn, 206, (21.); quam pro, w. compar- 
atives, 256, r. 11; quam non, 277, R. 14; 
quam and a verb after ante and post, 253, 
R. 1, N. 3; quam qui, w. comparatives and 
the subjunctive, 264, 4. 

Quamquam, peculiar use of, 198, 4, R- ; 
constr., 263, 2, (4.); used to connect an 
abl. absolute, 257, R. 10. 

Quamvis, constr., 263, 2, and (2.), (3.) 

Quando. quando-quidem, 198, 7, R-, {b.) 

Quantity, adjs. of, 104, 4; w. genit., 212, 

r. 3, n. 1; after sum and verbs of valuing, 

214; adverbs of, w. genit., 212, r. 4. 

Quantity, in prosody, 13, 1; marks of, 
5, 1 ; general rules of, 13 ; 283 ; special rules 
of, 284; of penults, 291; of antepenults, 
292; of penults of proper names, 293; of 
final syllables, 294—301; of final vowels, 
294—298; of final consonants, 299; of de- 
rivative words, 2S4; of compound words, 
285; of increments, 286—290; of Greek 
words, 2S3, e. 6. 

Quantus, pronom. adj., 139, 5, (3.); 
quantus for quam, with posse and superla- 
tives, 127, N. 1; constr., 206, (16.); quanto, 
w. comparatives, 256, R. 16; quantum, w. 
genit., 212, r. 3, u. 1; in ace. of degree, 

231, R. 5; 232, (3.); 256, r. 16, n.; quan- 
tum possum, w. indicative, 264, 3 Jin.; 
quantus— tantus, 206, (16.) 

Quantuscumque, quant u squantu it , quan- 
tuluscumque, 139, 5, (3.); w. indicative, 259, 
R. 4, (3.); quanticumque, 207, R. 29. 

Quasi, w. subj., 263, 2. 

Quatio, constr., 229, R. 4, 1 ; how changed 
in its compds., 189. a. 3. 

-que, its use, 198, 1, r., (a.); que — et, et 
— que, que — que, 198, r., (e.); its place, 

279, 3, (c.) 

Queis and quis, for quibus, 136, r. 2. 

Queo, how conjugated. 182, N.; w. inf., 
271, N. 3. 

Queror, w. ace, 232, n. 1; w. quod. 273, 
N. 6. 

Qui, declined, 136; qui in abl., 136, n. 1; 
137, R. 2; interrogative, 137; difference be- 
tween qui and quis, 137. 1; person of qui, 
209, r. 6; w. subj.. 264; when translated 
like a demonstrative, 206,(17.); with sum 
instead of pro, 206, (18.); quicum, when 
used, 136, R. ljin.; qui vero, qui autem, 

280, in., (3.); ex quo, for postquam, 253, 
X. 4. 

Quia, quod, and quoniam, 198, 7, r., (b.) 
Quicque and quicquam, 138, 3, (a.) 
Quicquid, 136, R. 4; ace. of degree, 

232, (3.) 

Quicumque, how declined, 136, 3; how 
used. 207, r. 29; w. indie, 259, r. 4, (3.); 
for omnis, quivis, or quilibet, 207, R. 29. 

Quid, 137; w. genit., 212, k. 3, N. 1, 
(a.); ace of degree, 231, r. 5, (a.); 232, 
(3.) ; quid ? why '! 235, k. 11 ; quid sibi vult ? 
228, N., (6.); quid est quod? w. subj., 261, 
7, n. 2; quidest cur ? etc., 264, 7, K. 2; quid 
a/iud quam? 209, r. 4; quid? quid vero? 
quid igitur ? quid ergo ? quid enim ? quid 
multa ? quid plura ? 229, r. 3, 2. 



402 



INDEX. 



Quidam, how declined, 138, 5 ; how used, 
207. r. 33. 

Quidem, its meaning, 191, R. 4; its place, 
279, 3, (d.) 

Quilibtt, how declined, 138, 5; how used, 
207, R. 34. 

Quies and compds., gender, 61, 1; genit., 
73,4; 96. 

Quin, 198, 8; w. subj., 262, R. 10; for a 
relative with non, ib., 1 and n. 6; for ut 
non, ib., 2; after non dubito, etc., quin? 
wh}' not? w. indie, ib., n. 9. 

Quippe, 198, 7, R., (6.); quippe qui, w. 
subj.. 264, 8, (2.) 

Quippiam, 138, 3, (a.) 
Quiqui, 136, R. 4. 

Quiris, genit. sing., 74, E.4; genit. plur., 
83, ii., 5. 

Quis, declined, 137; difference of quis 
and qui, 137, 1 ; between quis and uter, 212, 
R. 2, N. 1; quisest qui? w. subj., 264, 8, (2.); 
between quis and aliquis, 207, R. 30, (b.) 

Quisnam, quinam, how declined, l37, 2. 

Quispiam, how declined, 138, 3; how 
used, 207, r. 30; quippiam, w. genit., 212, 
r. 3, n. 1. 

Quisquam, how declined, 138, 3; how 
used, 207, R. 31; quicquam and quidquam, 
w. genit., 212, r. 3; ace. of degree, 231, 
R. 5, (a.); 232,(3.) 

Quisque, how declined, 138, 3: how used, 
207, r. 35; with plur. verb, 209, r. 11, (4.) ; 
its place, 279, 14; w. a superlative, 207, R. 
35. (6.); in apposition, 204, r. 10. 

Quisquis, declined, 136, 4; its use, 207, 
r. 29 ; difference between quisquis and qui- 
cumque, 207, R. 29; w. indie, 259, r. 4, (3.) 

Quivis, how declined, 138,5; how used, 
207, R. 34. 

Quo, tbe correlative adv., 191, r. 1; quo, 
w. a comparative, 256, R. 16, (2.); for ut eo, 
w. subj.. 262, r. 9; as adv. of place, w. gen- 
itive, 212, R. 4, N. 2, (6.); quo mihi hanc 
rem, 209, r. 4; 228, r. 5; quo secius. 262, 
r. 11. n.; quo ne, 262, r. 5. 

Quoad, w. subj., 263, 4; w. ejus, 212, r. 
4, n. 5. 

Quocum, quacum, etc., instead of cum 
quo, etc., 241, r. 1. 

Quod, causal conj., 198, 7; construction 
of, 273, 5; refers to past time, 273, (6.); 
w. subj. of dico, puto, etc., 266, 3, r. ; quod 
sciam, etc., 264, 3; quod, referring to a 
preceding statement, 206, (14); 273. 6, (a.); 
w. genit., 212, r. 3; before si, nisi, etc., 
206, (14); as ace. of degree, 232, (3.) 

Quojus and quoi, for cujus and cui, 136, 
r. 2. 

Quoque and etiam, difference between, 
198, 1, r., (</.); place of quoque, 279, 3, (d.) 

Quot, indecl., 115, 4; interrogative, 121, 
5; 139, 5, (3.); constr., 206, (16) ; quot sunt, 
qui? 264, 7, N. 2; quotquot, w. indie, 259, 
r. 4, (3.) 

Quoteni and quotus, interrogative, 121, 5. 

Quoties, interrog. adv., 121. 5. 

Quotus-quisque. its meaning, 207, R. 35, (a.) 

Quum, correlative of turn, 191, r. 7; in 
etead of postquam, 253, N. 4; — conj., 198 
10; constr., 263, 5, and r. 1-4. 



R. 



R, before s in roots of nouns, 56, r. 1 ; 
nouns in r, genitive of, 70, 71 ; changed to 
5 before 5 and t, 171, 3; r final, quantity 
of, 299, 2. 

Rapio, w. dat. or abl., 224, r. 2. 

Rarum est, ut, 262, r. 3, N. 3. 

Rastrum, plur. rastri or rostra, 92, 5. 
Ratio, w. genit. of gerunds, 275, HI., r. 1, 
(1.); ratione, as abl. of manner, without 
cum, 247, 2. 

Ratum est, ut, 262, r. 3, N. 2; ratum, 
pr., 284, E.I, (2.) 

-re in 2d person sing, of passive voice, 
162, 3. 

Re or red, inseparable prep., 196, (6.); 
197, 18; quantity of, 285, r. 3, (a.) 

Reapse, 135, r. 3. 

Recens, abl. of, 113, E. 3 and r. 1; also 
adverb, 192, 4, (6.) 

Receptio, constr., 233, R. 2, N. 

Recingor, w. ace, 234, R. 1. 

Recordor, w. genit. or ace, 216: w. pres. 
inf., 268, r. 1; w. ace and inf., 272, N. 1. 

Recte, instead of abl. of price. 252, r. 3. 

Reckoning, Roman mode of, 326, 327. 

Rectum est, ut, 262, k. 3, N. 3. 

Recuso quin, and quominus, 262, n. 7 and 
r. 11; w. ne, 271, r. 1; w. inf., ib., n., and 
271, n. 1. 

Reddo, w. two aces., 230, N. 1; pass. 210, 
r. 3, (3), (6.); w. perf. pass, part., 274, r. 4. 

Redoleo, w. ace, 232, (2.) 

Redundant nouns, 99 ; adjs., 116 ; 109, n. ; 
111, n.; verbs, 185. 

Redundo, w. abl., 250, 2, (2.) 

Reduplication, 163, r. ; of compound 
verbs, 163, e. 1: of verbs of 1st conj.. 165, 
R. 2; of 2d conj., 168, N. 2; of 3d conj., 
171, e. 1, (6.); quantity of. 284, E. 2. 

Refero, w. ace and inf., 272, N. 1. 

Refert and interest, w. genit., 214; 219; 
w. the adj. pronouns mea, etc., 219, r. 1; 
w. ad. etc., 219, r. 3; refert, pr., 285, R. 3. 

Refertus, w. genit. or abl.. 213, r. 5. (3.) 

Reflexive pronouns, 132, 4; 139, r. 2; 
how used, 208; for demonstratives, 208, 
(6.); ellipsis of, 229, r. 4; in oratio obliqua, 
266, r. 3. 

Reformido, w. inf., 271, N. 1. 

Regno, w. genit., 220, 4. 

Regnum, declined, 46. 

Rego, conjugated. 158. 

Relative adjs., 104, 13; 139, r.; govern- 
ment of, 213, r. 1 ; 222, 3; adverbs, w. subj., 
expressing a purpose, 264, 5, R. 2; used in- 
definitely, w. subj., 264, r. 3. 

Relative pronouns, 136; agreement of, 
206, R. 19; ellipsis of, 206, (5.); in tbc case 
of the antecedent, 206, (6.), (a.); referring 
to nouns of different genders, 206, (9.) ; — to 
a proposition, 206, (13.); agreeing with a 
noun implied, 206. (11); number and gen- 
der of, when referring to two or more 
nouns, 206, (15); — relative clauses used as 
circumlocutions and to express the English 
'so called,' 206, (19); relative adverbs for 
relative pronouns, 206, (20; ; the relative 
adjs. quot, quantus, etc., construction of, 



INDEX. 



403 



206, (16) ; qui with sum, instead of pro, 
206, (18); person of, 209. r. 6; 206. R. 19;— 
w. subj., 2(34: their place, 279. 13; 280, in., 
(2.); relatives as connectives, 280, III., (1.); 
198. n. 

Resolving, verbs of. 273, 1, (a.) 

Relinquo, w. two datives. 227, n. 1; w. 
part, in dus, 274, r. 7; relinquitur, w. ut 
aud the subj., 262, r. 3, K. 1. 

Reliqua. ace, 234, n., R. 3; reliquum est 
ut, 262, R.3. 

Reminiscor, constr., 216. 

Ronitto, 229. r.4. 1. 

Removing, verbs of. w. abl., 251. 

Remuneror, w. abl., 249, i., r. 1. 

Renuncio, w. two aces., 230, n. 1; pass., 
210. r. 3. (3.). (&.) 

Repeated words, their place, 279, 4. 

Repens, abl. of, 113, E. 3. 

Reperio, w. two aces., 230, N. 1; — repe- 
rior, 210, R. 3, (3.). (c); '271, r. 2;— reperi- 
untur, qui, w. subj., 264. 6. 

liepo, constr. of compds. of, 233, (3.), N. 

Repono, 241, R. 5. 

Rt/wsco, w. two aces., 231. r. 1. 

Repugno. with quominusox ne, 262, R. 11. 

Res, declined, 90; use of, 205, R. 7, (2.), 
K. 1. 

Reses, genit. sing, of, 112. 1 ; defective, 
115. 2. 

Resipio. w. ace, 232, (2.) 

Responsives, case of, 204, r. 11. 

Respublica, declined. 91. 

Restat, ut. 262. r. 3, n. 1. 

Rete, abl. of, 82, E. 1, (b.) 

Retracto, constr.. 229, R.4, 1. 

Reus, w. genit., 213. R.l.(3.); reum agere 
or facere, w. genit.. 217. R. 1. 

Rhetoric, figures of, 324. 

Rhus, genit. of, 76, e. 3; ace. of, 80, n. 

Rhythm, 308, (1.) 

Rideo, w. ace., 232, w. 1. 

-rimus, -ritis, quantity of. 290, E., (1.), 4. 

-rimus, superlatives in, 125, 1. 

Ritu, as abl. of manner without cum, 
247. 2. 

Rivers, gender of names of, 28. 

-rix, verbals in, 102, 6. (a.) See tor and 
trix. 

Rogo, w. two aces.. 231. R. 1; w. ut, 273, 
n. 4; 274, r. 7: without ut, 262, r. 4; 
constr. in pass.. 234. I. 

Roman dav. 326. 1 ; — hour, ib. : — month, 
326, 2;— names of the months, 326. 2, (1); 
—calendar table of, 326. 2,(6), p. 369;— 
week, 326, 2, (10); names of the days of the 
week. ib. ; — year, how designated. 326, 2, 
(11) ;— money, weights and measures, 327 ; — 
tables of weights, etc.. 327. pp. 370—373:— 
coins, 327, p. 371; — interest, how comput- 
ed, ib. 

Root or crude form of words inflected, 
what and how found, 40,10: formation of 
nomiuative sing, from in 3d decl., 56, I. 
and ii. 

Roots of verbs, 150; general, 150, 1; 
ppecial. 150, 2; second and third, how 
formed, 150, 3 and 4; third, how determin- 
ed when there is no supine. 151, N.; first, 
its derivatives, 151, 1; irregularities in 



tenses formed from, 162, 1—6; second, do., 
151, 2; irregularities in tenses formed from, 
162, 7—10; third, do., 151, 3; second and 
third, formation of, 1st conj.. 164 — 166; 2d 
conj., 167—170; 3d conj., 171—174; 4th 
conj., 175 — 177; second and third irregu- 
lar, 1st conj., 165; 2d conj., 168; 4th conj., 
176. 

-rs, nouns in, genitive sing, of, 77, 2, (2.) ; 
genit. plur. of, 83, n., 4. 

Hudis, 213, R. 1, and r. 4, (2.); 275, in., 
R. 1, (2.) 

Rupes, declined. 57. 

Rus. construed like names of towns, in 
ace, 237, r. 4; in abl., 254; 255; ef. 82, 
e. 5, (b.); rure, not run with an adj., 255, 

R. 1. 

-rus, participle in, how declined, 105, 
R. 2; its signification, 162. 14; 274, 2, r. 6; 
with shn and essem serving as future sub- 
junctives, 162, r. 3; with esse and fuisse, 
162. 14, R. 3; 268, R. 4; genitive plur. of, 
162, 19; denotes intention, 274, r. 6; used 
for an English clause connected by ' since, 
when,' etc., ib. ; as an apodosis, ib. 

Rutum, pr., 284, e. 1, (2.) 



S, sound of, 11 ; added to some roots of 
nouns of 3d decl., 56, I.; added to roots of 
verbs ending in a consonant, 171 ; used in- 
stead of t in the 3d root of some verbs, 171, 
E. 5; inserted iu some verbals, 102, 5, (b.); 
s preceded by a consonant, nouns in, gen- 
der of, 62 ; 64 ; genit. of, 77 ; final, elided, 
305, 2. 

Sacer, w. genit. or dat., 222, r. 2, (a.) 

Sacerdos, gender of, 30 ; 61, 3. 

Seepe, comparison of, 194, 5. 

Sal, 82, e. 1, (b.), and 66, e.; 96,9; pr., 
284, n. 1. 

Salio, constr. of compds. of, 233, (3.), n. 

Saltern, 193, n., 3. 

Saluto, w. two aces., 230, N. 1; salutor, 
w. two nominatives, 210, r. 3, (3.) 

Salve, 183, 9. 

Samnis, genit. sing., 74, E. 4; genit. 
plur., 83, n., 5. 

Sapio, w. ace, 232, (2.) 

Sapphic verse, 304. 2; 315, II. 

Sat, indecl., 115, 4; satis, w. genit., 212, 
r. 4; satis esse, w. dat. of gerund, 275, m., 
R. 2, (1); satis habeo, and satis mihi est, 
w. perf. infin., 268. R. 2; satis erat, indie 
instead of subj., 259, r. 3; degrees of com- 
parison, 126, 4. 

Satago, w. genit.. 215, (2.) 

Satelles, gender of, 30; 61, 2. 

Satiatus, w. abl. or genit., 213, R. 5, (3.) 

Satisdo, w. damni infecti, 217, R. 3, (c); 
w. dat., 225, i. 

Satisfar.io, w. dat., 225, I. 

Saturn, pr.,284, E. 1, 2. 

Saturnalibus, for ludis Saturnalibus , 253, 
N. 1. 

Satur, how declined, 105, R. 1; w. genit. 
or abl., 213, r. 5, (3.) 

Saturo, w. abl., 249, I., R. 1; w. genit. 
poet., 220, 3. 



404 



INDEX. 



Satus, -w. abl., 246. 

Saying, verbs of, constr., 272; ellipsis of, 
270, r. 2, (b.) and 3; implied, 273, 3, (ft.); 
used in the passive, 272, R. 6. 
Scando, compds. of, 233, (3.), N. 

Scanning, 304, 6. 

Scateo, w. abl., 250, 2, (2.), R. 1; with 
genit. poet., 220, 3. 

Scazon, 314, ir. 
Scidi, pr.,284, e. 1, (1.) 
Scilicet, 198, 7, R., (a.) 
Scio, w. ace. and inf., 272, n. 1; scito, 
162,4. ' 

Scitor and schcitor, constr., 231, E. 4. 

-sco, verbs in, 187, n., 2; drop sc in 2d 
and 3d root before t, 171. e. 6. 

Scribo, 273, 2, (c); w. two aces., 230, N. 
1; w. ace. and inf., 272, n. 1, and r. 6; in 
pass. w. predicate nominative, 210, k. 3, 
(3); scribit, w. pres. inf. instead of perf., 
268, R. 1, (a.) 

Se, inseparable prep., 196, (b.) 

Se, w. inter, 208, 5. See sui. 

Secerno, 251, n., and r. 2, N. 

Secus. for sexus, 88, 1; 94; 211, r. 6, (4.) 
230, r. 6; adv., 191, m. ; w. ace, 195, R. 3 

Sed, 198, 9, r., (a.); its place, 279, 3, (a.) : 
sed, sed quod, sed quia, 262, r. 9; sed, sed 
tamen, 278, R. 10; sed et, 198, 1, (d.) 

Sedeo, 210, R. 3, (2.); compds. of, 233, 
(3), N. 

Sedile, declined, 57. 

Sedo, constr., 229, r. 4, 1. 

-sem. old termination of plup. indie, ac- 
tive, 162, 9. 

Semi-deponent verbs, 142, 2. 

Senarius, 304, 2; Iambic, 314. 

Se?iex, its degrees of comparison, 126, 4 ; 
gender of, 65, 2; genitive of, 78, 2. (2); 
abl. of, 113, e. 2; 115, 1: for in senectute, 
253, r. 6. 

Sentences, 200; analysis of, 281. 

Sentiments of another, in dependent 
clauses, 266, 3. 

Sentio, w. ace. and inf., 272, n. 1. 

Separating, verbs of, w. abl., 251. 

Separo, w. abl., 251, N. 

Sequitur, constr. 262, r. 3, n. 1. 

-sere, future infin. in, 162, 10. 

Sereno, scil. ccelo, 257, r. 9, (2.) 

Sermo, declined, 57. 

Serpens, gender of, 64, 3. 

Sese, intensive. 133, R. 2. 

Servitutem servire, 232, (1.) 

Sestertius, its value. 327, R. 2, (5.); how 
deuoted, ib.; mode of reckoning, ib. ; ses- 
tertium, ib., r. 5 — 7. 

Seu, or sive, 198, 2, r., (c.) 

Ships, gender of their names, 29. 

Short syllable, 282, 2. 

Showing, verbs of, constr., 272, r. 6. 

Si, how pronounced, 11, E. 1. 

-si or -sin, Greek datives in, 84. 

Si, conj., 198, 5; si for num, 198, 11, R., 
(e.); si minus, sin minus or sin aliter, 198, 
6, r., (b.)\ 277, r. 14; ellipsis of in the 
protasis, 261, r. 1; si with the imperfect 
Bubj., instead of the pluperfect, 261, R. 5; 
si nihil aliud, 209, R. 4; si quisquam and si 
ullus, 207, r. 30, (6.) ; si non, 262, r. 5. 



Sibi suo, 228, »., (a.) 
Sic, 191, r. 5; 277, r. 12, (a.); pleonas- 
tically, 207, R. 22. 

Sicuti, w. subj., 263. 2, (1.) 

Significant word, in a proposition, 279, 
2, (e.) 

Siem, sies, etc., 154, R. 4. 

Sihntio praiterire or facere aliquid, with- 
out cum, 247, 2. 

Sileo, w. ace, 232. n.1; pres., 234, in: 

Silver age of Roman literature, 329, 3. 

-sim, old termination of perfect indie, 
active, 162, 9. 

Similar constructions, 278, N. 1 and 2. 

Simile, 324, 30. 

Similis, w. genit. or dat., 222, R. 2, (a.); 
w. dat. in imitation of the Greek, 222, r. 7 ; 
similes, w. inter., 222, R. 4. (4.); w. ac and 
atque, 222, R. 7, fin. 

Simple, subject. 202, 2 ;— predicate, 203, 
2 ;— sentences, 201, 10. 

Simul, w. abl., 195, r. 3; 241, R. 2; 
simul — simul, 277, R. 8. 

Shi, 198, 5; its place, 279, 3, (a.); sin 
minus, 277, R. 14. 

Singular number, 35, 1; sing, for plur., 
209, r. 11, 1, (b.) 

Singulare est ut, 262, r. 3, N. 3. 

Singuli, 119. 

Sino, 273, 4; 262, r. 4. 

Siquidem, 198, 7, R., (6.) 
Siquis, how declined, 138, 2; si^Ki's and 
siquid, how used, 138, 2, (a.) and (6.); 207, 
R. 29; si quis est', qui, w. subj., 264, 6. 

Sis for si vis, 183. r. 3. 

Sisto, constr., 229. r. 4, 1. 

Situm,$T., 284, e.' 1,(2.) 

fifoe or sew, 198, 2, r. ; 278, R. 8 ; its place, 
279, 3, (a.) ; sive — sive, w. verb in the indie, 
259, r. 4,(3.) 

-so, -sim, -sem, old verbal terminations, 
162, 9. 

Socius, w. genit. or dat., 222, r. 2, (a.) 

Sodes, for si audes, 183, R. 3. 

Solecism, 325, 2. 

Soleo, how conjugated, 142, r. 2; w. inf., 
271. n. 1. 

Solitus, 274, R. 3; solito, after compara- 
tives, 256, R. 9; its place. 279, n. 1. 

Solum, solummodo, 193, II., 3. 

Solus, how declined, 107; w. relative and 
subj., 264, 10; for solum, 205, e. 15. 

Solutus, w. genit., 213; w. abl., 251, N.; 
solutum, pr., 284, r. 3. 

Solvo, w. abl., 251, n. 

Sons, genit. plur. of, 114, e. 3 ; 115, 1, (a.) 

Sospes, genit. of, 112, 1; abl. of, 113, E. 2; 
115, 1. (a.); 126,5. (b.) 

Sotadic verse, 304. 2; 317, i. 

Sounds of the letters, 7—12; of the 
vowels, 7 and 8; of the diphthongs, 9; of 
the consonants, 10 — 12. 

Space, ace and abl. of. 236; ellipsis of, 
238, r. 3. 

Spatium, w. genit. of gerund, 275, nr., 
r. 1, (1); spatio as abl. of space, 236, R. 4. 

Specto, constr., 225, R. 1. 

Specus, 88, 1. 

Spero, w. ace and inf., 272. n. 1. 

Spes est, w. ace and inf., 272, N. 1; 



INDEX. 



405 



spes, w. genit. of gerunds, 275, XT., r. 1, 
(1.); spe, after comparatives, 256, r. 9; its 
place, 279, N. 1. 

Spolio, w. abl.. 251, N. 

Spondaic Terse, 310; tetrameter, 312. 

Spondeo, 163, R. ; w. ace. and inf., 272, 
N.l. 

Stanza, 319. 4. 

Stati/n, 193, n., 1. 

Statuo, 241, R. 5: 278, sr. 1; 271, N. 3; 

272, >'. 1: statutum habeo. 274, r. 4. 
Statum, pr., 284, e. 1, (2.) 

Sterilis, w. genit. or abl., 213, R. 5, (2); 
w. ad, 213, R. 4. (2.) 

Steti and stiti, pr., 284, e. 1, (1.) 

1 Still,' w. comparatives, how expressed in 
Latin, 256, R. 9. (b.) 

Stipulor, 217. R. 3. (c.) 

S?o. 163, r. ; w. genit. of price, 214, r. 3; 
w. pred. nom., 210, R. 3, (2.); w. abl., 245, 
n., 5, and r. 2; stat per me, construction 
of, 262. r. 11: compds. of, 233, (3.), n. 

Strophe, 319, 4. 

Studeo, w. dat., 223, r. 2; with eerund, 
275. in-, R. 2, (1.); with the inf. with or 
without an accusative, 271, R. 4; w. ut, 

273. 4, (a.) ; w. ace. id, 232, (3.) 
Studiosus, w. genit., 213, R. 1; 275, in., 

R. 1. (2.) 

Studium, w. genit. of gerunds, 275, n., 
R.l,(l.) 

Stijx, gender of, 28. E. 

Suarieo, constr., 273, ft. 4; 262, r. 4. 

Sub, in composition, force of, 122; gov- 
ernment of, 235, (2); constr. of verbs 
compounded with, 224; of adjs., 222, r. 
1,(6.) 

Subject of a verb, 140; of a proposition, 
201; 202; simple, complex, and compound, 
202; its place in a sentence. 279, 2; subject 
of a dependent clause made the object of 
the leading verb, 229, r. 5, (a.) 

Subject-nominative. 209: ellipsis of, 209, 
r. 1 and 2; when wanting, 209, R. 3; w. 
inf., 209. r. 5; 239. n. 1: two or more in 
the singular with a plural verb, 209, r. 12; 

(2.) 

Subject-accusative, 239; ellipsis of. 239, 
r. 1— 3; considered also as the accusative 
of the object after verbs of saying, showing, 
and believing, 272. k. 6. 

Subjective genitive, 211. R. 2; possessive 
pronoun used instead of. 211, R. 3. 

Subjectus. w. dat., 222, r. 1, [b.) 

Subjunctive. 143. 2; its tenses, 145, R. 2; 
how used. 260 — 266. and 273 : various use 
of its tenses, 260: how translated. 260, I. 
and n., R. 1; for imperative, 260, r. 6; in 
impersonal verbs. 184. R. 2; in conditional 
clauses. 261 : after particles, 262 and 263; 
after qui. 264; after relative advs.. 264, k.2: 
indefinite subj., 264. 12 and n. : in indirect 
questions. 265; in inserted clauses, 266; in 
oratio obliqua, 266, 1 and 2; after what 
verbs used. 273: after adjectives, 213. R. 4; 
exchanged for ace. w. inf.. 273. 3, (6.); 
subjunctive in doubtful questions, 260, R. 5; 
in repeated actions after relative pronouns 
and adverbs, 264, 12 



Subito, 193, II., 1. 

Subordinate conjunctions, 198, II.;— pro- 
positions, 201, 6 and 7. 

Substantive, 26 — 103; substantive pro- 
nouns, 132, 138; their gender, 132, 8: de- 
clined. 133 : as subject nominative, ellipsis 
of, 209, R. 1; dat. of, redundant, 228, N.; 
substantive verb, 153; substantive clauses, 
201, 7 and 8; 229, r. 5; 231, r. 2, (6.); sub- 
stantive clause instead of the abl. after opus 
est, 243, R. 1; and after digitus and indig- 
nus, 244, r. 2,(6.) 

Subter, constr., 235, (4.) 

Subtractive expressions in numerals, 118, 
4; 120, 2, 3, and 5. 

Succenseo, 223, R. 2; w. quod, 273, N. 6. 

Sufficio, w. dat. of gerund. 275, lit.. 
r. 2, (1.) 

Sid, signification of, 132, 4 ; declined., 133; 



use of, 208; 266, r. 3; 21 



R. 1, (4.) 



Sultis for si vultis, 183, R. 3. 

Sum , why called an auxiliary, 153 ; why 
substantive, ib.; why the copula, 140, 4; 
conjugated, 153; compds. of, 154, r. 5 — r. 7; 
w. a genit. of quality, 211, r. 6, (7); in 
expressions denoting part, property, duty, 
etc., 211, r. 8, (3); 275, R. 1, (5); denot- 
ing degree of estimation, 214; w. dat., 226; 
with two datives, 227; how translated, 227, 
r. 3; w. abl. denoting in regard to, 250, 
r. 3; w. an abl. of place, manner, etc., in 
the predicate, 210, R. 3, (1); w. dat. of ge- 
rund, 275, R. 2, (1); w. abl. of price, 252, 
R. 1 ; w. genit. of value, 214 ; sunt qui, w. 
subj., 264, 6; sunt quidam, nonnulli, etc., 
264, 6, r. 4; ellipsis of as copula, 209, r. 4 
Jin.; of esse and Juisse, 270, R. 3; sum w. 
predicate nom., etc., 210, r. 3, (1); esse w. 
predicate nom., 271, K. 2, and r. 4. 

Sinno, w. two aces., 230, r. 2; poet. w. 
inf., 271, n.3. 

Supeliex, genitive of, 78, 2, (2) ; abl. of, 
82, e. 5, (a.) 

Super, constr., 235, (3); of verbs com- 
pounded with, 224; of adjs., 222, r. 1, (b.) 

Superfluo, w. abl., 250, 2, (2), r. 1. 

Superjacio, constr., 233, (1.) 

Superlative degree, 122, 6 ; particular use 
of, 122, r.4; formation of, 124; hymaxime, 
127, 1; superlative with quisque, 207, R.35; 
w. partitive genit., 212, r. 2, and r. 4, w. 7; 
place of, 296, (7), (b.) 

Supero, w. abl., 256, R. 16, (3.) 

Supersedeo, w. abl., 242. 

Superstes, genit. of, 112,2; abl. of, 113, 
E. 2; 115, 1, (a.); 126, 5, (6.); w. genit. or 
dat., 222. r. 2, (a.) 

Supersum, w. dat., 224, 11; superest ut, 
etc.. 262, r. 3, n.I. 

Superus, its degrees of comparison, 125, 
4; supremus or summus. 205, R. 17; sum- 
mum used adverbially, 205, R. 10; 234, n., 
R. 3. 

Supines, 25 and 143, 3 ; few in number, 
162, 11; in um, by what cases followed, 
276,i.; on what verbs dependent, 276, n., 
w. eo, 276, II., R. 2 and 3; supines in u, 
after what adjs., 276, in., and R. 1; after 
fas. nefas, and opus, 276, in., r. 2; of two 
syllables, quantity of, 284, E. 1. 



406 



INDEX. 



Supra, w. ace, 195, 4; w. adjs., 127, 6; 
256, r. 13, (6.) 

Suppedito, w. two dats., 227, r. 1; 229, 
k. 4, 1; w. abl., 250, 2, r. 1. 

Supplex, genit. plur. of, 114, E. 2; 115, 
1, (a.); w. dat.,222, r. 1, (b.) 

Supposition or concession denoted by the 
tenses of the subj., 260. r. 3. 

Surripio. w. dat. or abl., 224, R. 2. 

Sus, gender of, 30; 67, k. 4; genit. of, 
76, e. 3; dat. and abl. plur., 84, e. 1. 

Suscipio, w. participle in dus, 274, r. 7. 

Suspensus and suspectus, w. genit., 213, 

R. 1. 

Suus^ use of, 139, r. 2 ; 208 ; referring to 
a word in the predicate, 208, (7) ; for hujus 
when a noun is omitted, 208, (7.); when 
two nouns are united by cum, 208, (7), 
(c>; denoting fit, etc., 208, (8.) 

Syllabic caesura, 310, n. 1. 

Syllabication, 17—23. 

Syllables, number of, in Latin words, 17; 
pure and impure, 80 ; quantity of first and 
middle, 284; of penultimate, 291; of ante- 
penultimate, 292 ; of final. 294. 

Syllepsis, 323, 1, (b.) and (3.) 

Symploce, 324. 15. 

Synaeresis, 306, 1. 

Synalcepha, 305, 1 

Synapheia, 307, 3. 

Synchysis-, 324, 4. 

Syncope, 322, 4; in genit. plur. of 1st 
decl., 43, 2; of 2d decl., 53; in cases of bos 
and su-s, 83, R. 1 and 84, e. 1; of e in ob- 
lique cases of nouns in er of 2d decl., 48; 
of 3d decl., 71, e. 1; in perfect, etc., of 
verbs, 162, 7; see Omission. 

Synecdoche, 234, ri.j 323,1, (5.); 324,3. 

Synesis or synthesis, 323, 3, (4.) 

Synonymia, 324, 29. 

Synopsis of Horatian metres, 320. 

Syntax, 1 ; 200—281. 

Systole, 307, 1. 

Syzygy, 303, 4. 



T. 



T, sound of, 12; before s in roots of 
nouns, 56, r. 1 ; in roots of verbs. 171, 3, 
and e. 5 ; nouns in, gender of, 66 ; genit. of, 
78; final, quantity of, 299, 2. 

Taceo, w. ace, 232, N. 1. 

Tcedet, w. genit., 215; w. ace. 229, r. 6. 

Tactio w. ace, 233, R. 2, n. 

Talma, gender of, 42, 2. 

Talis, demonstr. adj., 139,5, (3.); talis 
followed by qui and the subj., 264, 1, N.; 
ellipsis of, 264, 1. (b.); 206, (3), (a.); and 
(16;; talis ac, 198, 3, R. ; talis — qualis, 
206, (16.) 

Tarn, 191, r.5,; tam—quam, 277, R. 11; 
tarn with an adj. before qui and the subj., 
264, 1, N. 

Tamen, how used, 198, 4, r. 

Tametsi, 198, 4; constr., 263, 2, (4.) 

Tamquam, w. subj., 263. 2; used like 
quidam, 207, R. 33, {b.) fin.) w. abl. abso- 
lute, 257, N.4. 

Tandem, 191, r. 6. 



Tantum, adv., 193, n., 3. 

Tantus, demonstrative, 139, 5,(3.); fol- 
lowed by qui and the subj.. 264, 1. n.; 
ellipsis of. 264, 1, (&.); 206, (3.), (a.); and6; 
tantus — quantus, 206, (16); tanti, quanti, 
etc., w. verbs of valuing. 214, r. 1, (1.); 
tantum, w. genit. plur. and plur. verb, 209, 
r. 11, (3),; tantum, w. genit., 212. r.'3, n. 
1; tanti after rcfert and interest, 219, R. 5; 
tantum, ace. of degree, 231, r. 5; 232, (3.); 
256, r. 16, n. ; tanto, w. comparatives, 256, 
r. 16, (2.) 

Tantopere, 191, r. 5. 

Tard o.229, r. 4, 1. 

Tautology, 325, 4. 

Taxo, constr., 217, R. 5; w. abl. of price, 
252, r. i. 

-te, enclitic, 133, r. 2. 

Tempe. 83, 1, and 94. 

Tempero, 223, R. 2, and (1). (a.); tempe- 
rare mini non possum, quin. 262, n. 7. 

Temporal adjs.. 104. 6; classes of, 121, 3;— 
conjunctions, 198, 10. 

Tempus, ellipsis of, 205, R. 7; tempus est, 
w. inf., 270, R. 1 ; tempus i?npendere,2~5, in., 
r. 2; tempus consumer e, ib. ; temporis after 
turn and tunc, 212, R. 4, N. 4; w. id, hoc, 
or idem, 234, n., R. 3; tempore or in tem- 
pore, 253, n. 1; w. genit. of gerunds, 275, 
in., R. 1,(1.) 

Tenax, w. genitive, 213, R. 1, (1.) 

Tendo, constr., 225, IV.; 229, R. 4, 1; w. 
inf., 271, R*. 1: 

Teneo, w. perf. pass, participle, 274, R. 4 
Jin.; teneri, perf. pass, part., 268, R. 1. (b.) 

Tenses, 144 ; division of, 144, 2 and 3 ; of 
the subj., 145, r. 2; of the imperative, 145, 
r. 3; of the infinitive, 145, R. 4: connection 
of, 258; principal and historical, 258, a. 
and B. ; of indie, mood, used one for another, 
259; future for imperative, 259, r. 1, (4); 
the preterites of the indie, for the pluperfect 
subj. in the apodosisof a conditional clause, 
259, r. 4; of subj. mood, their use, 260, r., 
r. 1, and ii., r. 1; in protasis and apodo- 
sis, 261; of inf. mood, use of, 268; tenses 
used in epistolary style, 145, n., 3; 259, r. 
1, (2.), (c.) 

Tento, constr., 273, N. 1; w. inf., 271, 

N. 1. 

Tenus, w. genit., 221, in.; w. abl., 241, 
B. 1; place of, 279, 10 ; 241, r. 1. 

-ter, nouns in, 48, 1 ; 71. 

Teres, in genit. sing., 112, 1; defective, 
115, 2 ; its degrees, 126, 4. 

Terminational comparative, and superla- 
tive, 124; adjs. without such comparison, 
126, 5. 

Terminations of inflected words, 40; of 
nouns, table of, 39; of 1st decl.. 41 and 44; 
of 2d decl., 46; of 3d decl., 55; of 4th decl., 
87; of 5th decl., 90; masculine and femi- 
nine affixed to the same root, 32, 3; of de- 
grees of comparison in, adjs., 124, 125; in 
adverbs, 194, 2; personal, of verbs, 147, 3; 
verbal, 150 ; table of verbal, 152. 

Terrce, as genit. of place, 221, R. 3, (4); 
terra marique, 254. R. 2; terrarum, 212, R. 4, 
N. 2. 

Terreo, w. ut or ne, 262, N. 3. 



INDEX. 



407 



Teruncius, 327, p. 371; teruncii habere, 
214, r. I. 

Tele, intensive, 133, R. 2. 

Tetrameter. 304, 2; a priore, 312, IV.; 
a posttriore. 312, v. ; meiurus, 312, xi. ; 
catalectic, 312, xi'i. 

Tetraptotes. 94. 

Tetrastrophon, 319, 3. 

Th, in syllabication. 18, 2. 

' That.' sign of what moods, 273; instead 
of a repeated subst.. how expressed in Latin, 
207. r. 26. (e.) 

Thesis, in prosody. 308. 

Thinking, verbs of, their constr.. 272. 

Thousands, how expressed in Latin, 118, 
6, (a.) 

Ti. how pronounced, 12. 

Tiaras, 45. 3. 

Tibi, its pronunciation, 7, R. 1 ; 19, E. 

Tigris, geuit. of, 75, 2; ace. of, 80, E. 2; 
abl. of. 82. e. 2, (6.) 

Time. advs. of. 191, it.; conjs., 198, 10; 
ace. of. 236: abl. of, 253; with de or sub, 
253. r.4; with intra ib. ; with in. 253. R. 5: 
expressed by id with a genit., 253, R. 3; 
by the abl. absolute. 257; the concrete noun 
instead of the abstract title. 257, R. 7 ; mode 
of reckoning. 326; table of. 326, 6. 

Timeo, 223. r. 2, (1.); w. ut or ne, 262, 
R. 7; W. inf.. 271, N. 1. 

Timidus. w. genit.. 213. R. 1. 

Tiryns, genit. of. 77. e. 2. 

-tis. genit. in. 77. 2; 71, 2. 

Titles, place of. 279. 9, (a.) 

' Too ' or ' rather ' how expressed in 
Latin. 122, R.3: 256. R. 9. 

-tor and -trix, Terbals in, 102, 6 ; used as 
adjs., 129, 8. 

Tot. indecl., 115, 4; correlative of quot, 
121, 5; 206, (16); syncope of, before quot. 
206, ,16.) 

Totidem. indecl.. 115, 4. 

Toties, correlative of quoties, 121, 5. 

Totus, how declined. 107; toto, tola, abl. 
without in, 254. r. 2; totus, instead of an 
adverb. 205, R. 15. 

Towns, gender of names of, 29, 2 ; constr. ; 
see Place. 

-tr. roots of nouns in, 56, II., R. 3. 

Traditio. w. dat., 222. R. 8. 

Trado, w. ace. and inf.. 272, n. 1, and 
R. 6; w. part. fut. pass., 274, r. 7, (a.); 
tradttur, constr., 271, R. 2; trador, constr., 
271, r. 2. 

Tranquillo. scil. mart, 257, R. 9, (1.) 

Trans, constr. of verbs compounded with. 
233. 1; in passive. 234. R. 1, (b.) 

Trajicio, constr., 229. r.4, 1; 233, (1.) 

Transitive verbs, 141; w. ace, 229' ellip- 
sis of, 229. r. 2. 

Trees, gender of names of. 29. 

Tres, how decliued. 109. 

Trepidus, w. genit.. 213. R. 1. 

Tribuo. w. two datives. 227. R. 1 ; w. two 
aces., 230, R. 2; w. part. perf. pass., 274, 
R. 7, (a.) 

Tricolon, 319. 2; tricolon tristrophou and 
tetrastrophon, 319. 6. 

Tricorpor, abl. of, 113. x. 2; 115, 1. 

Tricuspis, abl. of, 113, E. 2. 



Trihemimeris, 304, 5. 

Trimeter, 304, 2 ; catalectic, 312, vn. 

Tripes, genit. oi, 112, 1; abl. of, 113, 
E. 2. 

Triptotes, 94. 

Tristrophon, 319, 3. 

Trochaic or feminine caesura, 310, n. 1;— 
metre. 315 and 303 ; tetrameter catalectic, 
315, I.; dimeter catalectic, 315, iv. ; tro- 
chaic pentameter or Phalecian, 315, III. 

Tropes, 324. 

-trum, verbals in, 102, 5. 

Trujicus, w. abl. or genit., 213, R. 5. (4.) 

Tu, declined, 133; in nom. with adj. in 
voc, 205, R. 15, (c.) ; used indefinitely, 209, 
r.7; when expressed, 209, r. 1; tui, femi- 
nine, with masc. or neuter gerundive, 275, 
in.. R. 1, (4.) 

Turn and quuyn, 191, R. 7; turn — turn, 
277, R. 8 ; turn and tunc, difference between, 
ib. ; turn maxime, ib. ; turn temporis, 212, 
R. 4, n. 4. 

Tumultu, as abl. of time, 253, N. 1. 

Tunc and nunc, 191, r. 7; tunc temporis, 
212, R. 4, k.4. 

Tumidus and turgidus, w. abl., 213, r. 
5,(5.) 

Turris. declined, 57. 

-tus, adjs. in, 128, 7; nouns in, of 3d 
decl.,76, e. 2; 102, 7. 

Tuns, how declined, 139 ; used reflexive- 
ly, 139 r. 1; tua after refert and interest. 
219, r. 1. 

U. 

17, sound of, 7 and 8 ; u and v. 2,3; u in 
genit. and voc. of Greek nouns. 54; roots 
of nouns of 3d decl. ending in, 56, i. : dat. 
in. 89; neuters of 4th decl. in, 87; dat. in 
of 4th deck, 89, 3; in 2d root of verbs. 167, 
and 171, e. 2; increment in, 3d deck. 287, 
3; plur., 288; of verbs, 290; final, quanti- 
ty of. 298 ; 285, R. 4 ; u and itu in 3d roots 
of verbs, 167. 

Ua.ue, etc.. pronunciation of, 9, 4 and 
5; quantity of, 283, ti., e. 3. 

Uber, w. genit. or abk, 213, R. 5, (3.) 

-ubus, in dat. and abl. plur., 89, 5. 

Ubi, genit., 212, r. 4, N. 2; w. indie, 
perf. instead of pluperf., 259, r. 1, (d.); 
ubiubi, 191, r. 1. 

-ucis, genitives in, 78. (5); 112, 2. 

-udis. genitives in, 76, e. 1. 

-uis, genitives in, 76, e. 3. 

-uleus, a, um, diminutives in, 100, 3, 
C. 1. 

Ullus, pronom. adj., 139, 5. (1), (a.); 
how declined. 107; how used, 207r. 31. 

Ulterior, its degrees, 126, i; idtimus for 
idtimum, 205, R- 15; how translated, 205, 
r. 17. 

Ultrix, gender of. 125- 1. (b.) 

Ultra, prep., 195, 4; adv., 191, I. 

Ulturti ire for ulcisci, 276, n., R. 2. 
-ulum, verbals in, 102, 5. 
-ulus, a, um, diminutives in. 100, 3; 
128, 5. 

■um, genit. plur. in instead of arum, 43; 
instead of orum, 53; nouns ending i% 46; 



408 



INDEX. 



in genit. plur. 3d decl., 83; 114; — advs. in, 
192, ii., 4. (b.) 

Uncia, 327, p. 372. 

-undus, participles in, 162, 20. 

Uncle dotno, 255, n. 1. 

Umquam, 191, n. ; umquam, usquam, us- 
que, uspiam, 191, R. 6. 

-untis, in genit. of Greek nouns, 76, E. 6. 

Units, declined, 107; when used in plur., 
118, r. 2; added to superlatives, 127, N. 2; 
unus et alter, with verbs singular, 209, 
k. 12; w. relative and subj., 264, 10; for 
solum, tantum, etc.. 205, r. 15, (b.); unum, 
as ace. of degree, 232, (3.) 

Unusquisque, how declined, 138, 4. 

-ur, nouns in, gender of, 66, 67; genit. 
of, 70, 71. 

-lira, verbals in, 102, 7, R. 2. 

Urbs, in apposition to names of towns, 
237, r. 2, (6.| 

-urio, verbs in, 187, II., 3. 

-uris, genitives in, 76, e. 3. 

-us, nouns in, of 2d decl., 46; exceptions 
in, 49—51; voc. sing, of, 46, N. and 52; 
of 3d decl., gender of, 66; 67; genitive of, 
76; Greek genit. in, 69, e. 3; nouns in of 
4th decl., 87 — 89; participles in, how de- 
clined, 105, R. 2; verbals in, 102, 7; final, 
quantity of, 301. 

Usitatum est, ut, 262, R. 3, N. 3. 

Uspiam, usqua?n, usque, 191, r. 6; us- 
quam, w. genit., 212, e. 4, n. 2; usque, w. 
ace, 195, r.3; 235, R. 9. 

Usus, w. abl., 243; usu venit, ut, 262, 
R.3, N. Is w. genit. of gerunds, 275, m., 

R.l,(l.) 

Ut or uti, a conj., 198, 8; ut non and ut 
ne, ib.; w. subj., 262; its correlatives, 262, 
k. 1; ellipsis of, 262, r. 4; its meaning 
after metuo, etc., 262, r. 7; ut non, 262, 
R. 5, and R. 6, 2; ut — ita or sic, 277, r. 12, 
(6.); ut, 'as,' ellipsis of, 277, R. 17; ut, 
' even if,' and ut non, w. subj., 262, r. 2; 
ut with certain impersonal verbs and subj., 
262, R.3; in questions expressing indigna- 
tion, 270, r. 2, (a.): ut, ut primum, etc., 
with the historical perf., indie, instead of 
the pluperf., 259, r. 1, (d.); its place, 279, 
3, (6.); ut after est with a predicate adj., 
262, r. 3, n. 4; ut credo, ut puto, etc., in 
interposed clauses, 277, i., R. 17; ut, 'be- 
cause,' 277, I., R. 12, ib.); ut qui, 264, 8, 2; 
ut si, w. subj., 263, 2; ut i'a dicam, 207, 
r. 33. (6.) fin. ; ut, ' as if,' w. abl. absolute, 
257, N. 4; utut. w. indie, 259. k. 4, (3); 
ellipsis of ut when ne precedes and et, etc., 
follow, 278, r. 6, (c.) 

Utcumque, w. indie, 259, R. 4, (3.) 

Uter, how declined. 107; w. dual genit., 
212, r. 2, n. 1. 

Utercumque, how declined, 107. 

Uterlibet, uterque, and utervis, their mean- 
ing and declension, 107; 139. 5, (1), (6.); 
uterque, use of. 207. R. 32; uterque, w. plur. 
verb, 209, r. 11, (4.5 

Wilis, w. dat.. 222, r. 1; 275, in., r. 2; 
w, ad, 222, r. 4, (1.); utile est ut, 262, r. 3, 
N. 3; utilis, w. inf. poetically, 270, r. 1. (6.); 
275, k.2; utilius fuit, indie instead of subj., 
259, m 3; w. supiua ju u, 276, m., r. 1. 



Utinam and uti, w. subj., 263, 1. 

-utis, genitives in, 76, e. 2; 112, 2. 

Utor, w. abl., 245; w. ace, 245, I., r.; 
w. two ablatives, 245, N. ; utor,fruor, etc., 
their gerundives, 275, II., r. 1. 

Utpote qui, w. subj., 264, 8, (2.) 

Utrique, how used, 107, R. 32, (c.) 

Utrum and utrumne, 198, 11. 

-utus, adjectives in, 128, 7. 

-uus, adjectives in, 129, 3. 

-mx, nouns in, genit. of, 78, 2, (5.) 

Uxor, ellipsis of, 211, R. 7- 



V, changed to w, 163, 2 ; sometimes drop- 
ped in forming the 2d root of verbs of the 
3d conj., 171, E. 4. 

Vaco, 250, 2, r. 1. 

Vacuus, w. genit. or abl., 213, R. 5, (3.); 
cf. 251, n. 

Vado, constr., 225, rv. ; 232. if. 1; 233, 
(3j, N.l. 

Vcr, w. dat., 228, 3; w. ace, 238, 2. 

Valde, 127, 2. ' 

Valeo, w. abl., 250, 2, r. 1; 252; w. ace, 
252, r. 4; valere or vale dico, w. dat., 225, 
I., n.; w. inf., 271, n. 1. 

Validus, 213, R. 5, (4.) 

Valuing, verbs of, 214, R. 2; w. genit., 
214; w. abl.. 252, r. 1. 

Vapulo, 142, r. 3. 

Variable nouns, 92; adjs., 122. 

Vas, genit. of, 72, e. 1; gender of, 62, 
E. 1, and e. 2; 93, 2. 

-ve, 198, 2, and js. 1, p. 76; place of, 279, 
3, (c.) 

Vehor, compds. of. 233, (3.), N. 

Vel, 198, 2; difference between vel and 
aut, 198, r.; vel w. superlative degree, 127, 
4; w. comparatives, 256, R. 9, (6.) 

Velim, w. subj. without ut, 260, R. 4: 
262, r. 4. 

Vellem, how used. 260, R. 2. 

Velox, constr., 222, R. 4, (2.) 

Velut, velut si, veluti, w. subj., 263, 2; 
velut, 'as if,' w. abl. absolute, 257, N. 4. 

Venalis, w. abl. of price, 252. 

Vendo, w. abl., 252; w. genit., 214, n. 3, 
N. 1. 

Veneo, 142, r. 3; 252; 214, r. 3. n. 1. 

Venio. w. two datives, 227, R. 1 ; w. ad 
or in, 225, rv. ; w. dat., 225. r. 2; venit 
mini in mentem, constr., 211, r. 8, (5); 
216. R.3. 

Venitur, conjugated, 184, 2, (6.) 

Verbal terminations, 152; nouns, 102; 
w. ace, 233, r. 2, n.; of place, 237, s. 1; 
w. dat., 222, r. 8; w. abl. of place, 255; 
w. genit. of personal pronouns, 21], R. 3, 
(a.); verbal adjs., 129. 

Verbs, 140—189; subject of, 140. 1; 
active or transitive, 141, i. ; neuter or in- 
transitive, 141, ii.; neuter passive, 142, 2; 
neutral passive, 142. 3; deponent. 142, 4; 
common, 142, 4, (6.); principal parts of, 
151,4; neuter, participles of, 162, 16; in- 
ceptive, 173; desiderntive, 1S7, II., 3; 176, 
N.; irregular, 178—182; defective, 183; re- 



INDEX. 



409 



dundant, 185; verbs spelled alike, or 
having the same perfect or supine, 186; 
derivation of. 187; imitative. 187. 3: fre- 
quentative. 187, n.. 1; inceptive, 187. n., 
2; desiderative. 1"~7. n., 3; diminutive. 
187, ii., 4; intensive, 187. ii., 5: 187, ir., 
1, («.); composition of. 188: changes in 
composition, 1^9; compounds from simples 
not in use, 1S9, N. 4; agreement of. 209, 
(b.); ellipsis of. 209. r. 4; person of with 
qui, 209. r. 6; agreeing with predicate 
nominative, 209, r. 9; with collective 
nouns, 209. r. 11 ; plural with two or more 
nominatives. 209, r. 12; after uterque, etc., 
209, R. 11. 4); after a nominative with 
cum aud the abl., 209, r. 12, (61 ; after nomi- 
natives connected by ant, 209. r. 12, (5); 
their place in a sentence, 279, 2; in a 
period, 280. 

Vere aud vero, 192, 4, N. 1. 

Vereor, w. genit. poet., 220,1; w. ut or 
ne, 262. R. 7; w. inf.. 271. n. 1. 

Verisimile est ut, 262, R. 3, n. 3; w. inf. 
as subject. 269, r. 2. 

Veritum est. w. ace, 229. r. 6. 

Vero, use of in answers, 192, 4, N. 1; 198, 
9. r.. (a.); ellipsis of, 278, R. 11; its place, 
279,3, (c.) 

Verses, 304; combinations of in poems, 
319. 

Versification. 302. 

Versus, w. ace, 195, R. 3; 235, r. 9; place 
of, 279. 10, (f) 

Verto, constr., 225, iv • w. two datives, 
227, R. 1: 229, r. 4. 1. 

Virum est. ut, 262, r. 3, N. 3; w. inf. as 
subject. 269, R. 2: verum, conj., 192, 9; its 
place, 279, 3; verum and vtrum-tamen, 
' I say,' 278, R. 10; verum enimvero, 198, 
9, R.. (a.); vero after comparatives, 256, 
B. 9. 

Vescor, with abl., 245, I.; with ace, 245, 
I., R. 

Vespere.&r -ri. 253. N. 1. 

Vester. how declined, 139, 1; vestrdm, 
133. 3: used after partitives. 212. R. 2, N. 2. 

Vestio. 229. r. 4. 1. 

Veto, 273. 2. [d.)\ 202. r. 4; w. ace. and 
inf.. 272, R. 6. 

Vetus, declension of. 112,2; its superla- 
tive. 125. 1 ; 126. 3. 

Via. abl. of place without in, 254, R. 3. 

Vicem for vice. 247. 1. n. 3. 

Vicinia, genit. of place, 221, R. 3, (4.); 
212, r. 4. n. 2, (b.) 

Vicinus. w. dat. or genit., 222. r. 2, (a.) 

Victrix, 115, 1, {b.); how declined as an 
adj., 129, 8. 

Videlicet and scilicet, 198, 7, R-, (a.); 
pr.. 285, r. 4. n. 2. 

Video, w. ace. and inf., 272, N. 1; w. ut 
or ne, 262. n. 3: indexes, 260, r. 2; video 
for euro, w. ut, 273, K. 1: videor, constr., 
271, r. 2; 272, r. 6. 

Viduus. constr., 213, R. 5, (4); 250, 
2,(1.) 

Vigeo. w. abl., 250, 2, r. 1. 

Vigil, abl. of. 113. E. 3; genit. plur. of. 
114, E. 2; 115. 1. (a.) 

Vigilice. 326, 1, (2.) 

35 



Vigilias, vigilare, 232. 

Vilis, w. abl. of price, 252. 

Vir, how declined, 48, 2. 

Virgilius, voc. of. 52; accent of, 14, E. 

Virgo, declined, 57. 

Virus, gender of. 51. 

Vis, declined, 85; ace. sing, of, 79. 2; 
abl. sing., 82, e. 2; genit. plur., 83. ir., 3; 
94; vi and per vifn, difference between, 
247, 3, R. 4; w. genit. of gerunds, 275, III., 
r. 1. (1.) 

Vitabundus, w. ace. 233, R. 2, N. 

Vitam vivere, 232. (1.) 

Vitio creati magistratus, 247, 2. 

Vivo, w. abl.. 245. II., 4; w. pred. nom., 
210. R. 3, (2); tertia vivitur cptas. 234, in. 

Vix, with part. fut. pass., 274, r. 12; 
viyrlum. 277, I-, R. 16. 

Vocative, 37; sing., its form. 40, 3; plur., 
40, 4; ellipsis of. 240, r. 2. 

Voco, constr., 225, k. 1; 230, N. 1; pass., 
210, R. 3, 3.) 

Voices, 141. 

Volucer, in genit. plur., 108. R. 2. 

Volo, [are), compds. of, 233. (3), N. 

Volo, conjugated, 178, 1; w. perf. inf., 
268, r. 2; w. perf. part., and ellipsis of 
esse, 269, R. 3; its construction, 271, R. 4, 
and n. 4; 273, 4; 262, h. 4; volens, w. dat. 
of person. 226, R. 3; volo bene and male 
alicui,226,l., n.; volo, w. reflexive pron., 
228. n., {b.) 

Voluntarv agent of pass, verbs. 248, I. ; 
ellipsis of, 141, r. 2; 248, I., R. 1; when 
expressed by per and ace. 247, r. 4: of 
neuter verbs, 248. r. 2; dative of voluntary 
agent, 225, II. and in. 

Volution, pr., 284, R. 3- 

Vos, see tit, 133. 

Voti aud votorum damnati, 217. R. 3. 

Vowels, 3,1; sounds of, 7 and 8; vowel, 
before a mute and liquid, its quantity, 13, 
6, and 283, iv., e. 2; before another vowel, 
quantity of, 13, 3, and 283, I.; in Greek 
words, 283. e. 6; before two consonants, 
13. 5, and 283, iv. ; ending first part of a 
compound, quantity of, 285, R. 4. 

Vulgus, gender of. 51 ; 95. 

Vultur, gender of, 67. 



W, not used in Latin. 2. 4. 

Weight, ace of, 236, r. 7; weights, Ro- 
man. 327. 

Willingness, verbs of. constr.. 273, 4. 

Winds, gender of names of. 28. 

JVishiug. verbs of. constr.. 271. r. 4. 

Words, division of, 17—23: arrangement 
of, 279; gender of as mere words, 34, 3. 

Writers in different ages, 329. 



X, sound of, 12; its equivalents, 3, 2; 56, 
R. 2; 171, 1; in syllabication, 18, 4; nouns 
in, gender of, 62 aud 65; genitive of, 
78,2. 



410 



INDEX. 



Y. 



Y, found only in Greek words, 2, 5; 
Bound of, 7, r. 2; 8, e. 5; nouns in, gender 
of, 62: genitive of, 69; increment in, 3d 
decl., 287, 3; final, quantity of, 298; 285, 
r. 4. 

-ycfiis, in genitive, 78, 2, (6.) 

-yds, genitives in, 78, 2, (6.) 

-ydis, genitives in, 77, 1. 

Yi', how pronounced, 9, 1; abl. in, 82, 
E.6. 



-ygis, genitives in, 178, 2. (6.) 

-ynos, Greek genitive in, 71, 2. 

-ys, nouns in, gender of, 62, 63, E. ; geni- 
tive of, 77; ace. of, 80, n. ; abl. of, 82, e. 6; 
final, quantity of, 301. 

-yx, nouns in, gender of, 65, 6. 



Z, found only in words derived from the 
Greek, 2, 5; its equivalents, 3. 2. 
Zeugma, 323, 1, (b.) and (2.) 



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